The Oregon Wolfe Barley (OWB) mapping population (Reg. no. MP-4, NSL 554937 MAP) is a resource for genetics research and instruction. The OWBs are a set of doubled haploid barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) lines developed at Oregon State University from the F1 of a cross between Dr. Robert Wolfe's dominant and recessive marker stocks. Exhibiting a high level of genetic and phenotypic diversity, the OWBs are used throughout the world as a research tool for barley genetics. To date, these endeavors have led to 56 peer-reviewed publications, as well as three reports in the Barley Genetics Newsletter. At the same time, the OWBs are widely used as an instructor resource at the K-12, undergraduate, graduate, and professional levels. They are currently used at universities and/or institutes in German, Italy, Norway, Spain, and the United States and are currently being developed further for educational use in other countries. Genotype and phenotype data, lesson plans, and seed availability information are available herein and online.

The Nordic Gene Bank (predecessor to today's plant section of The Nordic Genetic Resource Center, NordGen) established the 100 year seed storage experiment in Coal mine no. 3 outside Longyearbyen in 1986. The experiment was established with the aim to monitor the longevity of seeds in this Nordic back-up seed collection that were deposited in the coal mine from 1984 and to gain general knowledge about the longevity of seed stored under permafrost conditions, as well as studying the survival of seed borne plant pathogens. Seed samples have regularly been withdrawn for analysis according to a fixed withdrawal and analyze plan, that will continue until the last samples are analyzed in 2086.

IntroductionThe first small scale cultivation of potatoes in the Nordic countries began roughly 300 years ago, and later became an important staple food in the region. Organized conservation efforts began in the 1980s, and today, potato landraces, improved varieties, and breeding lines are conserved in genebanks at the Nordic Genetic Resource Center (NordGen), Sweden, and the Norwegian Genetic Resource Centre (NGS), Norway, as well as at potato breeding companies across Nordic countries. All these collections house a diverse array of genotypes with local names and local growing histories from the whole region. However, the presence of duplicates, and inconsistent naming has led to confusion.MethodsIn this study, 198 accessions of cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) have been genotyped with 62 microsatellite (SSR) markers. The analyzed accessions came from three collections: 43 accessions from the Danish Potato Breeding Foundation in Vandel (LKF-Vandel), 90 from NordGen and 65 from NGS.Results and discussionThe genetic analysis revealed 140 unique potato genotypes and 31 groups/clusters of duplicates, most of which contained duplicate pairs and the others three to ten accessions. Several accessions with distinct names were genetically identical or very similar, suggesting historical sharing, and regional distribution of seed potatoes, leading to the emergence of diverse local names. Moreover, many improved varieties from early potato breeding were revealed to have duplicates that have been considered Nordic landraces. Furthermore, potato accessions with identical names but originating from different collections were confirmed to be duplicates. These findings have already influenced management decisions and will further improve management practices for Nordic potato collections. Additionally, this new knowledge will benefit Nordic potato breeding efforts and allow for the dissemination of more accurate information to other users of potato diversity.

IntroductionIn situ and ex situ conservation are the two main approaches for preserving genetic diversity. The advantages and disadvantages of the two approaches have been discussed but their genetic effects have not been fully evaluated.MethodsIn this study we investigate the effects of the two conservation approaches on genetic diversity in red clover. Seed samples collected from wild populations in Sweden and Norway in 1980, their subsequent generations created during seed regeneration at the gene bank and samples recollected from the same location as the original samples, were analyzed with microsatellite markers, alongside reference samples from cultivars.ResultsOverall, there was a differentiation between cultivars and the wild material and between wild material from Sweden and Norway. In general, the original collections clustered together with the later generations of the same accession in the gene bank, and with the recollected samples from the same location, and the level of diversity remained the same among samples of the same accession. Limited gene flow from cultivated varieties to the wild populations was detected; however, some wild individuals are likely to be escapees or affected by gene flow.DiscussionIn conclusion, there were examples of genetic changes within individual accessions both in situ and ex situ, as is also to be expected in any living population. However, we observed only limited genetic changes in both in situ and ex situ conservation over the generations included in this study and with the relatively large populations used in the ex situ conservation in the gene bank at NordGen.

Genetic material in individual genebanks is potentially vulnerable to being lost (e.g. through conflict or a natural disaster). One important and simple security measure is to ensure that samples of these valuable genetic materials are conserved in more than one place. In this context, the Svalbard Global Seed Vault offers a free of charge service to store duplicate samples of seeds that are conserved in gene banks world-wide. This chapter provides an overview of this facility in Svalbard and describes its operations as well as its functions and status.

Aim: The aim of this dataset is to provide a list of the Crop Wild Relatives (CWR) in the Nordic region that are most important for future food security, and to provide basic data on geographic distribution, gene pool affinity, invasiveness, and threat level. The dataset can serve as a basis for Nordic level, as well as national level, conservation planning and implementation. Method: A comprehensive CWR checklist for all Nordic CWR taxa was developed in 2017 (Fitzgerald et al., 2017). The taxa on this list were prioritized based on socio-economic value of the related crop(s) and potential utilization value of the CWR for breeding, resulting in the first version of the priority dataset. More information on how the prioritization was performed can be found in Fitzgerald et al. (2019). In 2021, an update of the dataset was made. Nordic scientists and plant breeders were contacted and asked if, in their opinion, there were taxa missing from the dataset. All suggestions were considered and evaluated for socio-economic value and utilization potential. The taxa deemed to fulfill the criteria were added to the list. Also, information on national threat category and national invasive category were added, and information on local names and geographic distribution were updated. Results: The result of the analysis is a list/data set of CWR prioritized based on socio-economic value of the related crop(s) and potential utilization value of the CWR. The list includes information on national occurrence (indigenous, naturalized foreign, temporary findings), to which genepool/taxon group the CWR belongs, use category (food/forage), national threat status and national invasiveness classification.

Plant diseases may survive and be spread by infected seeds. In this study we monitored the longevity of 14 seed-borne pathogens in 9 crop species commonly grown in the Nordic countries, in addition to a sample of sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The data from the first 30 years of a 100-year seed storage experiment located in a natural −3.5 °C environment (permafrost) in Svalbard, Norway, are presented. To date, the pathogens, tested by traditional seed health testing methods (freezing blotter, agar plates, growing on tests), have survived. Linear regression analyses showed that the seed infection percentages of Drechslera dictyoides in meadow fescue, Drechslera phlei in timothy, and Septoria nodorum in wheat were significantly reduced compared to the percentages at the start of the experiment (from 63% to 34%, from 70% to 65%, and from 15% to 1%, respectively), and that Phoma betae in beet had increased significantly (from 43% to 56%). No trends in the infection percentage were observed over the years in Drechslera spp. in barley (fluctuating between 30% and 64%) or in Alternaria brassicicola in cabbage (fluctuating between 82% and 99%), nor in pathogens with low seed infection percentages at the start of the experiment. A major part of the stored sclerotia was viable after 30 years. To avoid the spread of seed-borne diseases, it is recommended that gene banks implement routines that avoid the use of infected seeds.

Crop diversity underpins food security and adaptation to climate change. Concerted conservation efforts are needed to maintain and make this diversity available to plant scientists, breeders and farmers. Here we present the story of the rescue and reconstitution of the unique seed collection held in the international genebank of International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria. Being among the first depositors to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, ICARDA managed to safety duplicate more than 80% of its collection before the last staff had to leave the genebank in 2014 because of the war. Based on the safety duplicates, ICARDA since 2015 have rebuilt their collections and resumed distribution of seeds to users internationally from their new premises in Morocco and Lebanon. We describe the multifaceted and layered structure of the global system for the conservation and use of crop diversity that enabled this successful outcome. Genebanks do not work alone but in an increasingly strengthened and experienced multilateral system of governance, science, financial support and collaboration. This system underpins efforts to build sustainable and socially equitable agri-food systems. Genebanks are repositories of genetic diversity, and getting the seeds to the facilities depends on committed researchers going, if necessary, into war-torn areas in order to save and transport their resources. This narrative recounts one such journey and the system that underpins these facilities and individuals.

As part of conservation of plant genetic resources, long-term storage of seeds is highly relevant for genebanks. Here we present a systematic review and a meta-analysis of studies on seed longevity focusing on half-life (P-50) under different storage conditions. Six studies were selected for the meta-analysis; in addition, a high number of additional references were included in the discussion of the results. The results show that under ambient conditions, half-life is short, from 5 to 10 years, while under more optimal conditions, which for orthodox seeds is at low humidity and low temperature, half-life is more in the 40-60 years range, although with large interspecies variation. Under long-term genebank conditions, with seeds dried to equilibrium and thereafter kept at minus 18-20 degrees C in waterproof bags or jars, half-life can be twice or three times as long. In general, many of the grain legume seeds, as well as corn, common oat, and common barley are long-lived, while cereal rye, onion, garden lettuce, pepper, and some of the forage grasses are more short-lived. Conditions during maturation and harvesting influence longevity, and proper maturation and gentle handling are known to be of importance. Seed longevity models have been developed to predict final germination based on initial viability, temperature, humidity, storage time, and species information. We compared predicted germination to results from the long-term experiments. The predicted values were higher or much higher than the observed values, which demonstrate that something in the seed handling in the genebanks have not been optimal. Long-term studies are now available with data at least up to 60 years of storage. Our review shows that the knowledge and methodology developed for the conservation of plant genetic resources should also work for wild species of orthodox seed nature.

More than 30 years ago, the Nordic Gene Bank established a long-term experiment on seeds stored under permafrost conditions in an abandoned mine corridor in Svalbard, as a tool to monitor storage life under these conditions. The study included seeds from 16 Nordic agricultural and horticultural crops, each represented by two or three cultivars (altogether 38 accessions). All seeds were ultra-dried to 3–5% moisture before being sealed in glass tubes. Germination tests were performed in accordance with the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) protocols. At the initiation of the experiment, the samples showed good germination with the median value at 92%. The overall picture remained stable over the first twenty to twenty-five years. However, the variation became larger over time and at 30 years, the median value had dropped to 80%. At the lower end, with a high drop in germination, we found rye, wheat, and English ryegrass. At the upper end, we found Kentucky bluegrass and cucumber. The lowest germination was found in samples with the highest initial seed moisture levels. Pre-storage conditions are likely to be of major importance for longevity.

The Svalbard Global Seed Vault was opened in 2008, as a storage facility for duplicates of seed samples that are conserved in gene bank collections. Many gene banks have faced threats that often caused loss of plant genetic resources due to war and conflicts, natural disasters or lack of human or economic resources.

Abstract Crop wild relatives (CWR) can provide one solution to future challenges on food security, sustainable agriculture and adaptation to climate change. Diversity found in CWR can be essential for adapting crops to these new demands. Since the need to improve in situ conservation of CWR has been recognized by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (2010) and the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (2011–2020), it is important to develop ways to safeguard these important genetic resources. The Nordic flora includes many species related to food, forage and other crop groups, but little has been done to systematically secure these important wild resources. A Nordic regional approach to CWR conservation planning provided opportunities to network, find synergies, share knowledge, plan the conservation and give policy inputs on a regional level. A comprehensive CWR checklist for the Nordic region was generated and then prioritized by socio-economic value and utilization potential. Nordic CWR checklist was formed of 2553 taxa related to crop plants. Out of these, 114 taxa including 83 species were prioritized representing vegetable, cereal, fruit, berry, nut and forage crop groups. The in situ conservation planning of the priority CWR included ecogeographic and complementarity analyses to identify a potential network of genetic reserve sites in the region. Altogether 971,633 occurrence records of the priority species were analysed. A minimum number of sites within and outside existing conservation areas were identified that had the potential to support a maximum number of target species of maximum intraspecific diversity.

AbstractMorphological diversity was studied in 101 accessions of horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) collected from old gardens in Denmark, Norway, Finland and Sweden. The characterization work was performed over three years, where a total of 19 descriptors from the UPOV guidelines TG/191/2-2001 were recorded each year. The results showed high diversity among the studied accessions, both for leaf and rhizome characters. A morphotype with long leaves and a high leaf length/leaf width quota was the most common, but also elliptic and heart-shaped leaf types were found. Some characters showed stability over the years, although there were variations in the results. Correlations between descriptors were found and five different clusters of descriptors were identified. In two of the clusters, only leaf characters were found, whereas the rhizome characters were divided into three other clusters. Correlation between descriptors can be used to reduce the number of descriptors for further studies of horseradish. The results showed that there is a high diversity both in leaf and rhizome characters, despite that horseradish is a vegetatively propagated plant.

Biopreservation and BiobankingVol. 16, No. 5 Original ArticlesOpen AccessCreative Commons licenseThe Svalbard Global Seed Vault: 10 Years—1 Million SamplesÅsmund Asdal and Luigi GuarinoÅsmund AsdalAddress correspondence to: Åsmund Asdal, MS, Nordic Genetic Resource Center, Smedjevägen 3, Alnarp 230 53, Sweden E-mail Address: asmund.asdal@nordgen.orgNordic Genetic Resource Center, Alnarp, Sweden.Search for more papers by this author and Luigi GuarinoGlobal Crop Diversity Trust, Bonn, Germany.Search for more papers by this authorPublished Online:12 Oct 2018https://doi.org/10.1089/bio.2018.0025AboutSectionsPDF/EPUB Permissions & CitationsPermissionsDownload CitationsTrack CitationsAdd to favorites Back To Publication ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmail Genebanks worldwide conserve plant genetic resources with the purpose of making them available for improving food and nutritional security through research, plant breeding, and education. In gene banks, genetic diversity is conserved ex situ through different methods, as seeds, living plants, and plant tissues. Well-dried, vacuum-packed seeds of so-called orthodox species can stay viable at low temperatures for very long predictable periods of time. Thus, for many crops, seed storage is the optimal method for long-term ex situ conservation of genetic diversity in genebanks.There may be some 1750 crop genebanks worldwide. About 130 of these hold >10,000 accessions each.1 Genebank collections are held by international, regional, and national institutes as well as by universities, breeding institutes, NGOs, private entities, and commercial companies. As an extra security measure for the conservation of valuable resources, international guidelines recommend safety duplication of genebank collections. All genebanks providing access to seeds for researchers and plant breeders are free to store security copies of these seeds at the Svalbard Global Seed Vault.The Vault was opened in 2008. It has the capacity to store 4.5 million seed samples in three caverns dug into a mountain at the end of a 100 m tunnel. Svalbard is considered to be an ideal place for a facility of this kind. It has deep permafrost, securing seeds at low temperatures even if the artificial cooling fails and it combines being a remote and calm location with good infrastructure and the presence of public services.Offering the world a safe place for seeds is in accordance with long standing Norwegian policies for supporting biodiversity conservation, and stakeholders all over the world trust that Norway will take good care of the seeds. The Vault is owned by the Norwegian government and managed through an agreement between the Norwegian Ministry for Agriculture and Food, the Global Crop Diversity Trust, and the Nordic Genetic Resource Centre (NordGen). The seeds in the Vault remain the property of the depositor, which can get the seeds back if their genetic material is lost or inaccessible from their own or from cooperating gene banks' repositories. Only the depositing institution can obtain access to the seeds it deposited in the Vault.After 10 years of operation, the number of deposited seed samples has reached 1,060,987. The major part, about two-thirds, has been deposited by international agricultural research centers. Four of these have deposited >100,000 samples each: CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) in Mexico, IRRI (International Rice Research Institute) in The Philippines, ICRISAT (International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) in India, and ICARDA (International Institute for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas), which until recently had its genebank in Syria.The largest depositors among national genebanks are the United States, Germany, Canada, Australia, The Netherlands, South Korea, and Switzerland. NordGen, the regional genebank of the Nordic countries, has also secured a significant part of its seed collection in the Vault. Genebanks in several developing countries have deposited seeds as well: Mali, Nigeria, Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Burundi, North Korea, Myanmar, and Pakistan, among others.The Vault now holds samples of about 5000 different species. Rice and wheat are represented by >150,000 seed samples each. Furthermore, 15 major cereal, vegetable, and forage crops are represented by >10,000 seed samples (Fig. 1). A review 5 years ago estimated that about a third of globally distinct samples of 156 crop genera with orthodox seeds are safety duplicated in the Vault, although some "minor" crops and countries such as China and India are underrepresented.2FIG. 1. Number of seed samples stored in the Svalbard Global Seed Vault of the 10 best represented crops by March 2018. NordGen Seed Portal.aSo far, only one institute has requested seeds to be returned. This happened in the autumn 2015, when ICARDA, which until then had its headquarters in Aleppo, Syria, lost access to its genebank, and needed seeds from Svalbard to establish new functional genebanks at sites in Lebanon and Morocco. Seeds from the Vault have been shipped back on two occasions, and have been sown and multiplied at these sites. ICARDA has taken on the huge task of multiplying and redepositing major parts of its seed collections in the Vault in the shortest possible time. Since the spring of 2017, it has redeposited seeds in the Vault on three occasions.The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is considered to be a vital part of the global system for conservation and use of plant genetic resources. This was reaffirmed at the last meeting of the Governing Body of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) in November 2017, which also encouraged genebanks to make use of the Seed Vault in their strategies for the long-term security of important seed collections.3The Vault partners invite genebanks to ship seeds to Svalbard on three or four regular opening occasions every year. Between 12 and 29 institutes have deposited seeds every year since 2008, for a total of 76. Many of these have deposited seeds several times, as part of a comprehensive program for securing major parts of their collections.4After 10 years of operation, the Seed Vault is now undergoing improvements to make the storage even more secure toward future climate change scenarios. During melting periods, the Vault has experienced water leakage in the entrance tunnel, although not at all to the storage halls themselves. Despite concerns about climate change in the Arctic, Svalbard is still considered to be the optimal place for hosting the global backup for plant genetic diversity collections. The completely watertight entrance tunnel that will be built during 2018 and 2019 will further increase the security of deposited seeds for the future of agriculture and food production.Author Disclosure StatementNo conflicting financial interests exist.References1 FAO, 2010. The Second Report on The State of the World's Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1500e/i1500e.pdf (Accessed March 15, 2018). Google Scholar2 Westengen OT, Jeppson S, Guarino L. Global ex-situ crop diversity conservation and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault: Assessing the current status. PLoS One 2013;8:e64146. Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar3 The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, 2017. Resolution 12/2017. Cooperation with other International bodies and organizations. IT/GB-7/17/Res12 Google Scholar4 NordGen, 2018. Svalbard Global Seed Vault Seed Portal, 20180314. https://www.nordgen.org/sgsv/ (Accessed March 14, 2018). Google Scholara (https://www.nordgen.org/sgsv/ 20180314).FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Volume 16Issue 5Oct 2018 Information© Asdal and Guarino, 2018; Published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.To cite this article:Åsmund Asdal and Luigi Guarino.The Svalbard Global Seed Vault: 10 Years—1 Million Samples.Biopreservation and Biobanking.Oct 2018.391-392.http://doi.org/10.1089/bio.2018.0025creative commons licensePublished in Volume: 16 Issue 5: October 12, 2018Open accessThis Open Access article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.PDF download

Climate change is likely to be one of the most important factors affecting our future food security. To mitigate negative impacts, we will require our crops to be more genetically diverse. Such diversity is available in crop wild relatives (CWRs), the wild taxa relatively closely related to crops and from which diverse traits can be transferred to the crop. Conservation of such genetic resources resides within the nation where they are found; therefore, national-level conservation recommendations are fundamental to global food security. We investigate the potential impact of climate change on CWR richness in Norway. The consequences of a 1.5 and 3.0 °C temperature rise were studied for the years 2030, 2050, 2070, 2080 and then compared to the present climate. The results indicate a pattern of shifting CWR richness from the south to the north, with increases in taxa turnover and in the numbers of threatened taxa. Recommendations for in situ and ex situ conservation actions over the short and long term for the priority CWRs in Norway are presented. The methods and recommendations developed here can be applied within other nations and at regional and global levels to improve the effectiveness of conservation actions and help ensure global food security.

Aim To contribute directly to Norway's national and international commitments to systematic, long-term conservation of crop wild relatives (CWR) by ensuring both the in situ and ex situ protection and availability of a broad range of CWR genetic diversity within the country.Location Norway.Methods We created a priority list of CWR within Norway based upon four main criteria including economic value from national to global level of associated crops and inclusion in Annex 1 of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA). Species presence data were gathered from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and used for predictive species distribution modelling in MaxEnt. CAPFITOGEN software was utilized to create an ecogeographic land characterization (ELC) map and to identify complementary in situ genetic reserves and ex situ collecting priorities which target the full range of ecogeographic diversity of taxa.Results An inventory of 204 priority CWR within Norway was compiled. A grid cell complementary network of 19 in situ areas (similar to 10 km(2) ) conserved 201 priority CWR, and a separate analysis identified a protected area complementary network of 23 reserves that conserved 181 priority taxa. For ex situ conservation, 177 taxa did not have ex situ accessions and of the 24 with accessions, 15 had the minimum of five populations conserved throughout their ecogeographic range.Main conclusions We present the first comprehensive national recommendations for in situ and ex situ conservation of 204 priority CWR in Norway. Proposals target the conservation of the ecogeographic diversity of the priority CWR and hence their genetic diversity. Both the priority taxa and the methodology used are applicable at regional and global scales with the recommendations not only helping Norway to meet its international obligations for conservation of genetic diversity of CWR but also ensuring this genetic diversity is available for use in tackling global food security.

Apple genetic resources in Norway are currently conserved within a number of local clonal archives. However, during establishment of these ex situ collections, primary focus was not on capturing as much of the diversity as possible, but instead on preserving cultivars of particular importance to specific fruit-growing areas. To identify redundancies within the collection as well as to assess the genetic diversity and structure of apple germplasm currently being conserved in Norway, eight microsatellites were used in genetic characterization of 181 apple accessions. Overall, 14 cases of synonym or possibly mislabeled accessions were identified, as well as several homonyms and duplicates within and among the analyzed collections. The information obtained should contribute to overall better management of the preserved germplasm. Bayesian analysis of genetic structure revealed two major clusters, one containing most of the foreign cultivars, while the other consisted mainly of traditional Scandinavian cultivars, but also some very winter-hardy genotypes such as 'Charlamovsky', 'Gravenstein', 'Transparente Blanche', and 'Wealthy'. Analyses of molecular variance (AMOVA) detected a significant genetic differentiation among the clusters (f(CT) = 0.077; P < 0.01). The results of the Bayesian analyses do not indicate a strong differentiation between the foreign and the Norwegian apple accessions, however, they do suggest that climate adaptation has had a significant influence on the genetic structure of the preserved germplasm. Overall, apple accessions currently maintained ex situ in Norway represent a diverse germplasm which could be very valuable in future breeding programs, especially for the Scandinavian climate.

The current book is a celebration of 40 years of Nordic collaboration on plant genetic resources. International perspectives are highlighted and the first chapter is written with input from Axel Di ...