This study aimed to identify central and peripheral glutamatergic biomarkers underlying heterogeneous clinical phenotypes in olanzapine-treated patients with schizophrenia, with the goal of informing biomarker-guided personalized therapy. We conducted a cross-sectional observational study of 51 adults with schizophrenia receiving chronic olanzapine treatment (mean duration = 5.6 years), integrating clinical assessments with peripheral neurochemical profiling and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) of the anterior and posterior cingulate cortices. Partial correlations controlling for age, sex, and treatment duration revealed significant associations: higher serum serotonin correlated with more severe negative symptoms (ρ = 0.32, p = 0.029), and increased cingulate Glx ratios were linked to greater depressive burden (ρ = 0.31, p = 0.031). Elevated serum glutamic acid was associated with overall psychopathology, whereas lower serum and cingulate glutamine levels were related to more severe symptoms and higher olanzapine exposure. Hierarchical clustering on principal components (HCPC) identified three phenotypic subgroups: (1) low-symptom, dose-efficient responders; (2) high-symptom, dose-resistant patients with cingulate hypoglutamatergia; and (3) younger individuals with elevated Glx ratios and moderate exposure, suggestive of a hyperglutamatergic, neurodevelopmental profile. These findings demonstrate that central and peripheral glutamatergic markers delineate distinct clinical phenotypes of olanzapine response in schizophrenia, shaped by both neurochemical and demographic factors. Stratification based on glutamatergic profiles and symptom patterns may contribute to the development of precision psychiatry approaches. To our knowledge, this is the first study to integrate central and peripheral glutamatergic biomarkers with multivariate phenotyping in a naturalistic olanzapine-treated cohort, identifying (i) a low-symptom, low-exposure phenotype, (ii) a high-symptom, high-exposure phenotype characterised by reduced cingulate Glx, and (iii) a younger phenotype with elevated cingulate Glx ratios, consistent with, though not confirmatory of, a neurodevelopmental trajectory. These findings are exploratory and warrant prospective validation to determine their potential utility for biomarker-guided treatment stratification in schizophrenia.

INTRODUCTION:Previous studies have reported inconsistent findings regarding the severity of gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms in schizophrenia. While abnormalities in neurometabolic pathways have been implicated in both schizophrenia and GI disorders, little is known about the biological underpinnings of GI discomfort in schizophrenia. This study aimed to investigate the relationships between brain metabolite concentrations, blood biomarkers, and self-reported GI symptom severity in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. METHODS:Thirty-six patients with schizophrenia in remission (SCZ) and 35 age-matched healthy participants (CON) underwent proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the anterior (ACC) and posterior (PCC) cingulate cortex. Blood samples were analysed for laboratory parameters including liquid-chromatography-mass spectrometry. The Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale (GSRS) was used to assess gastrointestinal symptom discomfort. SCZ were evaluated with Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). RESULTS:No significant differences were observed between the SCZ and CON groups in the total GSRS score or any of the subscales. In SCZ, positive correlations between N-acetylaspartate in the ACC and GSRS scores were observed, with the most significant result for abdominal discomfort (FDR-r = 0.59; p < 0.01). In SCZ, valeric acid concentration positively correlated with abdominal discomfort (r = 0.38; p < 0.05), and with N-acetylaspartate in the ACC, and glutamine in the ACC and PCC. In CON, platelet distribution width correlated with reflux discomfort (FDR-r = 0.64; p < 0.05), and butyrate concentration negatively correlated with diarrhea symptoms (r = -0.46; p < 0.01). No significant associations between PANSS and GSRS scores were observed. CONCLUSIONS:Although overall GI symptom severity did not differ between groups, schizophrenia patients demonstrated distinct associations between GI discomfort, brain neurometabolites, and peripheral biomarkers.

This study aimed to identify neurochemical and clinical phenotypes among olanzapine-treated schizophrenia patients to inform biomarker-guided personalized therapy. We conducted a cross-sectional observational study of 51 adults with schizophrenia receiving chronic olanzapine treatment (mean duration = 5.6 years), integrating clinical assessments with peripheral neurochemical profiling and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) of the anterior and posterior cingulate cortices. Partial correlations controlling for age, sex, and treatment duration revealed significant associations: higher serum serotonin correlated with more severe negative symptoms (ρ = 0.32, p = 0.029), and increased cingulate Glx ratios were linked to greater depressive burden (ρ = 0.31, p = 0.031). Elevated serum glutamic acid was associated with overall psychopathology, whereas lower serum and cingulate glutamine levels were related to more severe symptoms and higher olanzapine exposure. Hierarchical clustering on principal components (HCPC) identified three phenotypic subgroups: (1) low-symptom, dose-efficient responders; (2) high-symptom, dose-resistant patients with cingulate hypoglutamatergia; and (3) younger individuals with elevated Glx ratios and moderate exposure, suggestive of a hyperglutamatergic, neurodevelopmental profile. These findings highlight the heterogeneity of olanzapine response in schizophrenia, shaped by neurochemical and demographic factors. Stratification based on glutamatergic markers and symptom profiles may advance precision psychiatry. This is the first study to integrate central and peripheral biomarkers with multivariate phenotyping in a naturalistic olanzapine-treated cohort.

Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is a biologically determined trait that influences how individuals respond to external and internal stimuli. A high level of SPS is characterized by three factors: increased emotional reactivity, heightened sensitivity to subtle stimuli, and greater susceptibility to overstimulation, all of which may impact well-being and health. This study examined the relationships between SPS, perceived stress, affect, and biochemical responses in adult dental patients (N = 157) on the day of a routine dental visit. Biochemical measures included morning cortisol and serotonin secretion (saliva samples), and cortisol concentration accumulated in recent months (hair sample). Perceived stress and negative and positive affect were assessed while patients waited for a dental procedure. The correlation analysis revealed that higher SPS level was associated with elevated hair cortisol and more negative affect. Cluster analyses tested SPS and its factors independently, revealing that individuals with higher SPS had higher cortisol levels in saliva and hair samples, as well as greater perceived stress and negative affect. Salivary serotonin levels showed varied relationships with different SPS factors, indicating the need to analyze SPS as a multidimensional construct. The results indicate that increased hair and salivary cortisol may be considered as biomarkers of SPS. In the context of patient-centered care, considering SPS levels may contribute to enhanced motivation for regular dental visits and improved treatment adherence.

Growing evidence suggests that serotonin is an important mediator in the cross-talk between immune and bone cells, playing a role in the pathogenesis of various types of inflammatory arthritis (IA). However, the relationship between circulating serotonin and different outcomes in three most prevalent IA - rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis (PsA), and axial spondyloarthritis (axSpA), remains limited and requires further investigation. This study was performed to evaluate variations in serotonin serum levels among RA, PsA, and axSpA and to explore the utility of this biochemical marker in the assessment of disease activity and health status measurements provided by the Multi-Dimensional Health Assessment Questionnaire (MDHAQ). This was a cross-sectional study using data from the PolNorRHEUMA registry. Demographic and clinical data, as well as blood samples, were collected during routine visits to the rheumatology outpatient clinic. We included 60 patients (20 with RA, 20 with PsA, and 20 with axSpA) and 45 healthy controls, with a mean age of 49 years and 56.2

Given its polygenic nature, there is a need for a personalized approach to schizophrenia. The aim of the study was to select laboratory biomarkers from blood, brain imaging, and clinical assessment, with an emphasis on patients’ self-report questionnaires. Metabolomics studies of serum samples from 51 patients and 45 healthy volunteers, based on the liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS), led to the identification of 3 biochemical indicators (cortisol, glutamate, lactate) of schizophrenia. These metabolites were sequentially correlated with laboratory tests results, imaging results, and clinical assessment outcomes, including patient self-report outcomes. The hierarchical cluster analysis on the principal components (HCPC) was performed to identify the most homogeneous clinical groups. Significant correlations were noted between blood lactates and 11 clinical and 10 neuroimaging parameters. The increase in lactate and cortisol were significantly associated with a decrease in immunological parameters, especially with the level of reactive lymphocytes. The strongest correlations with the level of blood lactate and cortisol were demonstrated by brain glutamate, N-acetylaspartate and the concentrations of glutamate and glutamine, creatine and phosphocreatine in the prefrontal cortex. Metabolomics studies and the search for associations with brain parameters and self-reported outcomes may provide new diagnostic evidence to specific schizophrenia phenotypes.

Benzophenone derivatives such as benzophenone-2 (BP-2) belong to the group of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). Increased exposure to EDCs is considered to be an important factor behind the decline of human fertility. The main aim of the present study was to determine the effect of BP-2 on testicular function specified by sperm analysis, the level of sex hormones and their receptors. Since BP-2 has been shown to activate the immune system, another aim of the research was to verify the hypothesis that the immune system may be contributing to the testis toxicity of this compound and for this purpose changes in macrophage and lymphocyte populations in the testes were determined. BP-2 at a dose of 100 mg/kg was administered dermally, twice daily at a dose of 100 mg/kg for 4-weeks. It was shown that BP-2 reduced the number and motility of sperm and increased the number of sperm showing morphological changes. By determining the concentration of sex hormones, a significant decrease in testosterone levels and an increase in the blood levels of 17β-estradiol were demonstrated. Similar to the results obtained from the blood samples, testosterone levels in the testes were lowered, which could affect sperm parameters. The effect of BP-2 on lowering testosterone levels and the number of sperm cells may be due to immunoactivation in the testes, because it has been detected that this compound significantly decreased the number of the immunosuppressive resident testicular macrophages (TMs) (CD68-CD163+), but increased pro-inflammatory TMs with monocyte-like properties (CD68+CD163-).

The altered cerebral energy metabolism central to schizophrenia can be linked to lactate accumulation. Lactic acid is produced by gastrointestinal bacteria, among others, and readily crosses the blood-brain barrier, leading to the brain acidity. This study aimed to examine the association of the oral microbiota with the effects of acid stress induced by an increase of brain lactate in schizophrenia patients. The study included patients with a diagnosis of acute polyphasic psychotic disorder meeting criteria for schizophrenia at 3-month follow-up. Results: Individuals with a significantly higher total score on the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale had statistically significantly lower lactate concentrations compared to those with a lower total score and higher brain lactate. We observed a positive correlation between Actinomyces and lactate levels in the anterior cingulate cap and a negative correlation between bacteria associated with lactate metabolism and some clinical assessment scales. Conclusions: Shifts in the oral microbiota in favour of lactate-utilising bacterial genera may represent a compensatory mechanism in response to increased lactate production in the brain. Assessment of neuronal function mediated by ALA-LAC-dependent NMDA regulatory mechanisms may, thus, support new therapies for schizophrenia, for which acidosis has become a differentiating feature of individuals with schizophrenia endophenotypes.

Brain ischemia is one of the leading causes of death and long-term disability in the world. Interruption of the blood supply to the brain is a direct stimulus for many pathological events. The massive vesicular release of glutamate (Glu) after ischemia onset induces excitotoxicity, which is a potent stress on neurons. Loading of presynaptic vesicles with Glu is the first step of glutamatergic neurotransmission. Vesicular glutamate transporters 1, 2, and 3 (VGLUT1, 2, and 3) are the main players involved in filling presynaptic vesicles with Glu. VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 are expressed mainly in glutamatergic neurons. Therefore, the possibility of pharmacological modulation to prevent ischemia-related brain damage is attractive. In this study, we aimed to determine the effect of focal cerebral ischemia on the spatiotemporal expression of VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 in rats. Next, we investigated the influence of VGLUT inhibition with Chicago Sky Blue 6B (CSB6B) on Glu release and stroke outcome. The effect of CSB6B pretreatment on infarct volume and neurological deficit was compared with a reference model of ischemic preconditioning. The results of this study indicate that ischemia upregulated the expression of VGLUT1 in the cerebral cortex and in the dorsal striatum 3 days after ischemia onset. The expression of VGLUT2 was elevated in the dorsal striatum and in the cerebral cortex 24 h and 3 days after ischemia, respectively. Microdialysis revealed that pretreatment with CSB6B significantly reduced the extracellular Glu concentration. Altogether, this study shows that inhibition of VGLUTs might be a promising therapeutic strategy for the future.

The vast majority of stroke cases are classified as ischemic stroke, but effective pharmacotherapy strategies to treat brain infarction are still limited. Glutamate, which is a primary mediator of excitotoxicity, contributes to neuronal damage in numerous pathologies, including ischemia. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the hydrogen sulfide donor AP39 on excitotoxicity. AP39 was administered as a single dose of 100 nmol/kg b.w. i.v. 10 min after the restoration of blood flow and 100 min after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Neurological deficits by Phillips's score, and infarct volume by TTC staining were evaluated (n = 8). LC-MS was used to determine the extracellular glutamate concentration in microdialysates collected intrasurgically and from freely moving animals 24 h and 3 days after reperfusion (n = 6). The expression of proteins involved in the regulation of glutamatergic transmission was investigated 24 h after reperfusion by Western-blot analysis (n = 6). The results were verified by double-immunostaining of brain cryosections (n = 6). The results showed a significant longitudinal decrease in extracellular glutamate concentrations in the motor cortex and hippocampus in MCAO + AP39 rats compared to MCAO rats. Moreover, the administration of AP39 increased the content of the GLT-1 transporter and reduced the content of VGLUT1 in the ischemic core. Upregulation of the GLT-1 transporter responsible for glutamate reuptake from the synaptic cleft, and downregulation of VGLUT1, which regulates glutamate transport to synaptic vesicles, indicate that these are important mechanisms by which AP39 reduces extracellular glutamate concentrations and, consequently, excitotoxicity after ischemia.

Legal highs present a great threat to health, especially in groups of people experimenting with psychoactive substances. The lack of available knowledge on the biotransformation of these substances necessitates symptomatic treatment in the event of intoxication, which, unfortunately, may be ineffective. Opioids, including heroin analogues, such as U-47700, constitute a special group of designer drugs. In this study, a multi-directional approach to trace the biotransformation of U-47700 in living organisms was used. For this purpose, the in silico assessment (ADMET Predictor) was used first and then followed by an in vitro study using human liver microsomes and the S9 fraction. The biotransformation was then followed in an animal model (Wistar rats). Tissues such as blood, brain and liver were collected for analysis. The study was performed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The obtained results were compared to those obtained from the analysis of autopsy materials (cases analysed in the Toxicology Laboratory of the Department of Forensic Medicine, Jagiellonian University Medical College in Krakow).

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a condition characterized by persistent symptoms and complications resulting from reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are fermentation products of dietary fibres by the gut microbiota and are often studied for their anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects. The presence of SCFAs in the upper gastrointestinal tract, including in patients with GERD, has not been previously studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the concentrations of SCFAs in the saliva of different age groups of patients with GERD. The study included 86 patients diagnosed with GERD, divided into two groups according to age: under and over 60 years of age, treated in the Gastroenterology and Hepatology Outpatient Clinic of the University Hospital in Cracow and 39 patients without gastrointestinal tract diseases. After clinical examination, blood was drawn to determine complete blood count, haemoglobin, and CRP. The oral cavity was examined, and unstimulated mixed saliva was collected. The SCFAs analysis was made by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry after facile derivatization coupled with liquid-liquid extraction. Of the six SCAFs studied, the highest median concentrations of acetic acid and propionic acid were observed in the saliva of patients with GERD and in the control group, in both the younger and older groups of patients. The concentrations of acetic acid and propionic acid were also higher compared with the four other fatty acids in the saliva of patients with GERD and in the control subjects. There were no correlations between salivary SCFAs levels and selected clinical and endoscopic parameters, including chronic inflammatory changes of the esophagus and stomach. In conclusions: SCFAs are present in the saliva of patients with GERD and in the control healthy persons. With the exception of valeric and isovaleric acids, salivary levels of SCFAs were significantly higher in patients with GERD compared to the control group. The highest concentrations of acetic acid and propionic acid were observed in patients with GERD and in both the younger and older patient groups. There were no differences in the concentrations of SCFAs in the saliva of female and male groups. We found no correlations between salivary SCFAs levels and selected clinical, laboratory and endoscopic changes of the oesophagus and stomach.

Ischemic stroke accounts for over 80% of all strokes and is one of the leading causes of mortality and permanent disability worldwide. Intravenous administration of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA) is an approved treatment strategy for acute ischemic stroke of large arteries within 4.5 h of onset, and mechanical thrombectomy can be used for large arteries occlusion up to 24 h after onset. Improving diagnostic work up for acute treatment, reducing onset-to-needle time and urgent radiological access angiographic CT images (angioCT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) are real problems for many healthcare systems, which limits the number of patients with good prognosis in real world compared to the results of randomized controlled trials. The applied endovascular procedures demonstrated high efficacy, but some cellular mechanisms, following reperfusion, are still unknown. Changes in the morphology and function of mitochondria associated with reperfusion and ischemia-reperfusion neuronal death are still understudied research fields. Moreover, future research is needed to elucidate the relationship between continuously refined imaging techniques and the variable structure or physical properties of the clot along with vascular permeability and the pleiotropism of ischemic reperfusion lesions in the penumbra, in order to define targeted preventive procedures promoting long-term health benefits.

Detailed assessment of the biotransformation of compounds and the activity of their metabolites is an extremely important element in the safety evaluation of a substance, both in preclinical and clinical studies. It should be noted that the metabolite may differ from the parent compound in terms of physicochemical properties and consequently pharmacological and toxicological properties.The purpose of the biotransformation of xenobiotics is to increase their hydrophilicity, which allows excretion in the urine. the metabolites of biotransformation phase I show undesirable pharmacological or toxic effects much more often. according to U.S. Food and Drug administration (FDA) guidance, if a metabolite in the human body accounts for more than 10% of the total amount of metabolites, its safety should be thoroughly assessed. Metabolites can interact more strongly or weakly, or to the same degree, with the same or a different molecular target as the parent compound. they can also display non-specific effects by, for example, damaging macromolecules (e.g. proteins, nucleic acids) in the way that free radicals do. In the case of new psychoactive substances (NPSs), the pharmacological properties, including metabolism, are largely unknown until they are traded illegally and their users begin to appear in departments of toxicology or forensic medicine. It is in this way that the activity profile and probable metabolic pathways of NPSs are determined. to determine the metabolites of NPSs is also an important toxicological skill in the forensic testing of biological samples (blood/urine/tissue) collected from victims, in which metabolites, not parent compounds, are usually found.Using examples from the authors’ research and the available literature, the article aims to present alternative methods of metabolism testing for NPSs. In vitro methods (application of microsomes, S9 fraction, hepatocytes, cytosol) are discussed and comparisons are made between the results of in vivo tests on animals and analyses of autopsy material.The experiments and the literature review demonstrate that by using in vitro methods the metabolism of NPSs can be predicted with high probability. By improving existing methods of metabolism research and creating new and alternative ones it will be possible to better understand metabolic pathways and better identify the NPS metabolites formed in the human body. This will contribute not only to the development of better methods of treating NPS poisoning, but will also be of use when compiling forensic and medical reports for the judiciary.

A high-calorie diet has contributed greatly to the prevalence of overweight and obesity worldwide for decades. These conditions also affect pregnant women and have a negative impact on the health of both the woman and the fetus. Numerous studies indicate that an unbalanced maternal diet, rich in sugars and fats, can influence the in utero environment and, therefore, the future health of the child. It has also been shown that prenatal exposure to an unbalanced diet might permanently alter neurotransmission in offspring. In this study, using a rat model, we evaluated the effects of a maternal high-sugar diet on the level of extracellular glutamate and the expression of key transporters crucial for maintaining glutamate homeostasis in offspring. Glutamate concentration was assessed in extracellular fluid samples collected from the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of male and female offspring. Analysis showed significantly increased glutamate levels in both brain structures analyzed, regardless of the sex of the offspring. These changes were accompanied by altered expression of the EAAT1, VGLUT1, and xc− proteins in these brain structures. This animal study further confirms our previous findings that a maternal high-sugar diet has a detrimental effect on the glutamatergic system.

The problem of an unbalanced diet, overly rich in fats, affects a significant proportion of the population, including women of childbearing age. Negative metabolic and endocrine outcomes for offspring associated with maternal high-fat diet during pregnancy and/or lactation are well documented in the literature. In this paper, we present our findings on the little-studied effects of this diet on NMDA receptors and cognitive functions in offspring. The subject of the study was the rat offspring born from dams fed a high-fat diet before mating and throughout pregnancy and lactation. Using a novel object location test, spatial memory impairment was detected in adolescent offspring as well as in young adult female offspring. The recognition memory of the adolescent and young adult offspring remained unaltered. We also found multiple alterations in the expression of the NMDA receptor subunits, NMDA receptor-associated scaffolding proteins, and selected microRNAs that regulate the activity of the NMDA receptor in the medial prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus of the offspring. Sex-dependent changes in glutamate levels were identified in extracellular fluid obtained from the medial prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus of the offspring. The obtained results indicate that a maternal high-fat diet during pregnancy and lactation can induce in the offspring memory disturbances accompanied by alterations in NMDA receptor expression.

Cannabis sp. or hemp is a plant that has been used extensively for centuries, both as an excellent source of fibers and oil, but also - thanks to the content of compounds called phytocannabinoids, acts as a plant for medicinal applications. Determination of the structure of the active substance of Cannabis sativa, i.e. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), and then the discovery of the neurotransmission system based on the interaction of cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous ligands (endocannabinoids), resulted in enormous interest in these compounds and their potential application in medicine. Many scientists have studied the structure-activity relationship of Δ9-THC, modifying its original dibenzopyran structure more and more. As a result of this long-term research, a very large and diverse group of compounds was obtained, which were to become new painkillers, antiepileptics and anti-anorectic drugs. Unfortunately, further research and clinical trials were stopped for the same reason - an adverse psychoactive effect. Published research results on the structures of these compounds and their predicted pharmacological activity have been used by criminal organizations involved in drug trafficking. In this way, information about mysterious poisonings caused by unknown substances (later called: new psychoactive substances (NPS) used for recreational purposes began to appear in Europe in the early 21st century. These substances have been detected in Poland since 2008 and have been popularized under the name "legal highs". The phenomenon of using NPS peaked in 2015, which was related to the wave of poisoning with the product "Mocarz". Since then, the number of reported poisonings has been systematically decreasing, despite the more and more reliable methods of collecting epidemiological data in this field. The presence of new psychoactive substances has forced lawmakers to adopt a completely new approach to enacting drug law. The aim of this article is to summarize the history of synthetic cannabinoids used in smoking mixtures (spice) in Poland as well as to describe the structure of synthetic cannabinoids and systematize them into chemical groups, taking into account only those substances that have appeared and have been banned in Poland.

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3), the most widely used UV chemical filter, is absorbed well through the skin and gastrointestinal tract and can affect some body functions, including the survival of nerve cells. Previously, we showed that BP-3 evoked a neurotoxic effect in male rats, but since the effects of this compound are known to depend on gender, the aim of the present study was to show the concentration and potential neurotoxic action of this compound in the female rat brain. BP-3 was administered dermally to female rats during pregnancy, and then in the 7th and 8th weeks of age to their female offspring. The effect of BP-3 exposure on short-term and spatial memory, its concentrations in blood, the liver, the frontal cortex, and the hippocampus, and the effect on selected markers of brain damage were determined. Also, the impact of BP-3 on sex and thyroid hormone levels in blood and hematological parameters was examined. It has been found that this compound was present in blood and brain structures in females at a lower concentration than in males. BP-3 in both examined brain structures increased extracellular glutamate concentration and enhanced lipid peroxidation, but did not induce the apoptotic process. The tested compound also evoked hyperthyroidism and decreased the blood progesterone level and the number of erythrocytes. The presented data indicated that, after the same exposure to BP-3, this compound was at a lower concentration in the female brain than in that of the males. Although BP-3 did not induce apoptosis in the hippocampus and frontal cortex, the increased extracellular glutamate concentration and lipid peroxidation, as well as impaired spatial memory, suggested that this compound also had adverse effects in the female brain yet was weaker than in males. In contrast to the weaker effects of the BP-3 on females than the brain of males, this compound affected the endocrine system and evoked a disturbance in hematological parameters more strongly than in male rats.

This study was designed to determine the chemical composition, antioxidant activity, and selected bioactive compound content and occurrence in whole immature and mature garlic plants grown from air bulbils. Two winter garlic cultivars, Harnaś and Ornak, of Polish origin, were cultivated from air bulbils at the Experimental Station of the Agricultural University in Kraków, Poland. Harvest bunching of garlic of both cultivars was carried out in May and in June. Mature plants were harvested in July. In whole plant proximate analysis, the concentration of vitamin C, total polyphenols, antioxidant activity, carotenoids, chlorophyll a and b, as well as glutathione level were determined. P-coumaric acid was found in Harnaś and Ornak samples collected in May. Sinapinic acid was identified in Ornak samples collected in June and July. Identification of sulphur compounds depended on the term of harvesting. Significantly higher content of total phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, as well as other bioactive compounds, was measured in the Harnaś and Ornak cultivars harvested in May. A significantly lower level of bioactive compounds was determined in mature plants harvested in July. The organosulfur compound profile and polyphenolic profile depended on the time of harvesting. Immature garlic cultivated from air bulbils is recognized as a potential source of bioactive compounds in human nutrition, however, more research, in particular in vivo studies, is required to confirm its functional properties.