Bio-based nanomaterials (BNMs) have emerged as promising modulators of plant growth hormone (phytohormone) signaling pathways under combined heavy metal (HM) stress conditions. This review investigates how BNMs influence hormone-regulated stress signaling networks to improve plant tolerance to HM stress at biochemical, molecular and physiological levels. Plant extract and microbial-mediated synthesis strategies use biological metabolites as reducing and stabilizing agents, providing environmentally compatible routes for agricultural nanomaterials. BNMs may influence phytohormone-regulated stress responses through multiple, partly interconnected mechanisms, including surface-mediated interactions, redox modulation, metal chelation and transcriptional regulation of hormone-related pathways. By combining ROS attenuation, metal chelation and stress-responsive gene regulation, BNMs may help preserve phytohormone biosynthesis and signaling while reducing HM toxicity. This review highlights how BNMs reshape gene expression networks associated with phytohormone biosynthesis and signaling, including abscisic acid, ethylene, auxin and jasmonic It also examines how these nanomaterials enhance plant defense systems by upregulating stress-responsive genes and antioxidant enzyme activities. Furthermore, we discuss current challenges in synthesis standardization, scale-up, delivery efficiency and field validation, together with future directions for optimizing BNM-phytohormone interactions under multiple metal stress. Finally, this review highlights BNMs as environmentally compatible tools for improving crop performance in HM-contaminated soils, while emphasizing that precise hormone-pathway targeting requires further mechanistic and field-level validation.

Fusarium wilt disease is a significant challenge to the tomato crop, causing economic losses worldwide. The unwise use of chemical fungicides has raised concerns about food safety. Hence, biocontrol is a sustainable strategy for controlling Fusarium wilt disease. This study aimed to promote growth and manage Fusarium wilt disease in pea plants using two Bacillus strains (Bacillus aryabhattai strain Z-48 and Bacillus cereus strain Z-53) either alone or in a synthetic consortium. The application of the consortium of both Bacillus strains provided maximum protection against Fusarium wilt disease, showing the biocontrol effect of 54.3%. Under Fusarium disease stress, the consortium application increased shoot length, root length and dry biomass up to 88.6%, 31.1%, and 86.7% respectively, compared with the pathogen alone treatment. Likewise, the application of the Bacillus consortium significantly increased the time-course accumulation of defence-related enzymes, and photosynthetic pigments in Pea plants. Non-targeted metabolite profiling indicated extensive remodulations in the production of a wide array of metabolites upon application of the consortium (Z-48 + Z-53). The multivariate analysis showed strong relationships between treatments and different metabolites, including phenylalanine, ursolic acid, and glycerol-3-phosphocholine. The study demonstrates that this Bacillus consortium can be effectively used to develop a biocontrol-based formulation for farming applications.

The contamination of agricultural land with toxic chemicals, such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd), has become a major global concern, negatively affecting the ecosystem, public health, and food safety. This review highlights the sources of Pb and Cd into the environment, current knowledge of the severity of Pb and Cd contamination in soil and vegetables, documents their phytotoxicity and human toxicity, and then assesses effective remediation strategies that include phytoremediation, foliar application of nanoparticles, and organic growth hormones. The current study found that the toxicity of Pb and Cd in soils and vegetables from different countries exceeded the WHO permissible limit. For the phytoremediation process, ornamental plants are selected due to their genetic and phenotypic characteristics, as well as their widespread use. Since the sisal plant (Agave sisalana) is a rapidly growing plant that produces a high quantity of biomass, its products never compete with the food chain. Hence, these characteristics make it a suitable choice for phytoremediation of Pb- and Cd-contaminated soil. Furthermore, the fiber derived from sisal’s leaves has the capacity to sequester these toxic metals straight from the contaminated soil. Nanoremediation involves the foliar application of zinc oxide nanoparticles, and moringa leaf extract has been proposed to reduce the uptake of Pb and Cd in plants. However, more research is needed to understand better how the individual and combined effects of these remediation techniques effectively treat Pb- and Cd-contaminated and co-contaminated soil.

Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana L.) fruit exhibits a short storage life due to its rapid ripening, susceptibility to oxidative stress, enzymatic browning, and tissue softening. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) coating has a substantial role in inhibiting the maturation process, oxidative breakdown, and decay incidence in fruit during storage. It is widely recognized as an effective edible coating due to its excellent film-forming ability and semi-permeable barrier properties, which are superior to many other biopolymer and natural cellulose coatings in reducing moisture loss and maintaining postharvest quality. Therefore, the present study was executed to investigate the pre-storage influence of CMC in maintaining physiochemical characteristics and enhancing the defensive mechanism of ber fruit cultivars i.e., Umran and Pak White, during ambient storage. Fruits were subjected to different concentrations of CMC (control, 0.25 g/hg, 0.5 g/hg, and 1 g/hg) for 5 min and stored at ambient storage for 12 days. Results exhibited that 1 g/hg CMC-treated fruit, at 12-day ambient storage, had lower weight loss (29.14%), decay incidence (25.50%) compared to Pak White fruit, which had lower weight loss (39.87%) and decay (36.72%). The treatment had a considerable effect on postponing the ripening process through keeping lower total soluble solids (26.72 °Brix) and ripening index (33.87%) in ‘Umran. Moreover, the CMC coating maintained greater levels of ascorbic acid and total phenolics, and lower levels of oxidative stress indices, such as electrolyte leakage (37.23%), hydrogen peroxide (10.16 μmol/g), and malondialdehyde (3.89 nmol/g). Moreover, the antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, POD, CAT, APX) were stimulated, whilst softening enzymes like polygalacturonase (10.46 nkat/mg FW) and cellulase (16.00 nkat/mg FW) were notably inhibited. Overall, these findings indicate that CMC coating is an effective postharvest strategy to reduce decay incidence, delay ripening, and mitigate cellular disintegration and tissue softening by strengthening antioxidant defense mechanisms, thereby maintaining the quality of ber fruit under ambient storage conditions.

This study was conducted to observe the effects of temperatures and myoinositol on thermotolerance in early grain filling of climate-resilient crop Quinoa. Different temperature levels including 32/21℃, 36/23℃, and 40/25℃ were given to the BBCH scale 69 (early grain filling) of Quinoa in the glasshouse for seven days to observe the critical temperature levels while 26/19 °C was the control during two years of study. The plants were grown at optimal temperatures until flowering. During early grain filling, four sets of pots were placed in the respective chambers and 10 mM myoinositol was sprayed one day before moving the pots into their respective chambers. Quinoa leaf physiology and grain yield began to decrease at 36 °C, while a significant reduction was observed at 40 °C over the plants of optimal temperature. For example, seed yield per panicle per plant, 1000-grain weight, and net photosynthesis rate (Pn) were reduced by 40

In this study, three novel azo dye derivatives (designated as S20, S29 & S30) were synthesized via a Diels-Alder reaction under microwave irradiation. These 1,2,4-triazine dyes were characterized by 13C-NMR and 1H-NMR. Moreover, the dye potential of these dyes was examined by textile application through ISO standard methods, i.e., ISO 105-C06, ISO 105-X12, ISO 105-E04 & ISO 105-B02. The colorfastness properties of these dyes were investigated on polyester fabric. These dyes were screened via in vitro antibacterial properties against Gram-negative & Gram-positive bacteria at 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 mg/ml concentrations by using Cephalosporin (cephalexin) as a standard drug. These synthesized dyes reported good results against E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus strains after 24 h. Anyhow, by using Molegro virtual Docker, molecular docking of these azo dyes with proteins 4RLO and 2JE5 was explored with a good MolDock score by comparing with cephalexin. Solvatochromism and photochromism of these azo dyes in different solvents were checked. Molecular dynamics simulations identified Compound S30 as the most stable system, exhibiting minimal structural deviations and sustained interactions throughout the simulation, thereby confirming its superior dynamic behavior. By using the IEFPCM model, TD-SCF DFT values were compared to experimental results, with approximately the same results. Hirshfeld analysis and Topological analysis of these dyes were checked by the Gaussian program with method (B3LYP Ground state-DFT), basis set (6-311G), and Multi wfn3.8.

Copper (Cu) contamination poses severe threats to agricultural productivity and food safety, particularly affecting economically important crops such as rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). This study investigated the protective effects of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) against Cu toxicity in four B. napus cultivars. Exposure to Cu (200 μM) caused severe reductions in growth and photosynthetic efficiency while significantly elevating oxidative stress markers across all cultivars. Application of SeNPs (25 μM) effectively mitigated these adverse effects, improving biomass, restoring chlorophyll content, and enhancing photosynthetic performance compared to Cu-stressed plants. SeNP treatment significantly enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities, with corresponding upregulation of antioxidant gene expression. Secondary metabolite profiling revealed cultivar-specific responses, with sensitive cultivar Zheda 622 exhibiting metabolic adaptation and higher volatile organic compound (VOC) accumulation, while tolerant cultivar Zheda 635 maintained metabolic stability. PCA analysis demonstrated distinct metabolic clustering patterns, reflecting differential stress-responsive strategies. The study demonstrates that SeNPs attenuate Cu-induced toxicity through integrated mechanisms encompassing diminished Cu acquisition, augmented antioxidant defense systems, and comprehensive metabolic reprogramming. Cultivar-specific responses highlighted substantial genetic variation in tolerance mechanisms across B. napus genotypes. These findings substantiate SeNPs as a viable and efficacious nanomaterial for sustainable agronomic management in Cu-contaminated edaphic environments. The approach offers dual benefits of improved crop productivity and reduced Cu accumulation, ensuring enhanced food safety.

Sigma factors (SIGs) are nuclear-encoded regulators of chloroplast gene transcription. We conducted a genome-wide analysis in Brassica napus, identifying 23 SIG genes that were phylogenetically classified into six distinct subfamilies. Characterization of gene structure, conserved motifs, and chromosomal locations indicated family expansion primarily through segmental duplication under purifying selection. Promoter analysis identified cold-responsive elements enriched in BnSIG5A. Expression profiling showed that BnSIG5 subfamily members, particularly BnSIG5A, are strongly induced by cold stress. Analysis of Arabidopsis SIG5 mutants confirmed previously reported roles of AtSIG5 in cold tolerance. Heterologous expression in yeast, and the strong cold induction of BnSIG5A together with its chloroplast localization, suggest that BnSIG5A may play a conserved role, providing a foundation for future functional studies in B. napus. This work establishes a genomic framework for the SIG family in rapeseed and identifies BnSIG5A as a high-priority candidate for further investigation. Subcellular localization confirmed chloroplast targeting of BnSIG5A. Heterologous expression in yeast and analysis of Arabidopsis SIG5 mutants suggest conserved functions in cold tolerance, providing a foundation for future functional studies in B. napus. This work establishes a genomic framework for understanding SIG-mediated stress responses in rapeseed and identifies BnSIG5A as a promising candidate for further investigation.

The current research provides the comparative chemical analysis of hexane fractions obtained from the stem and flower of Pleurospermum Candollei with their antioxidant and cytotoxic evaluations. The tentative structures of less polar compounds in flower and stem of P. Candollei were elucidated through GCMS which identified 26 and 27 compounds from hexane fraction of P. candollei flower and stem, respectively. Ten compounds were common in both fractions with different percentages. The antioxidant potential of extracts and hexane fractions of P. candollei were assessed, where both flower and stem hexane fractions showed good-to-moderate antioxidant activity. While stem fraction (IC50 =14.2 ± 0.6 µg/mL) and stem extract (IC50 = 19.1 ± 0.6 µg/mL) showed more antioxidant potential compared to the flower fraction (IC50 = 45.1 ± 0.2 µg/mL) and flower extract (IC50 = 22.1 ± 0.3 µg/mL). Additionally, cytotoxic activity of both flower and stem fractions was investigated against breast (MCF-7) and prostate (LN-CaP) cancer cell lines where flower hexane fraction showed outstanding activity (IC50 =14.7 ± 0.2 µg/mL) against breast cancer (MCF-7) cell line as compared to doxorubicin (IC50 = 27.7 ± 1.1 µg/mL). Furthermore, in-silico strategy explored the binding potential of flower fraction identified compounds with topoisomerase-II. This study reflects that P. candollei may serve as a natural source of novel drug candidates.

Fusarium wilt is a devastating plant disease that causes significant yield losses worldwide. Biocontrol agents represent a sustainable alternative for Fusarium wilt management. In this study, three rhizospheric bacterial strains from Rhizobium and Bacillus genera were evaluated for managing Fusarium wilt in chili plants. Rhizobium nepotum strain Z-21 isolated from the rhizosphere of Vicia faba significantly reduced Fusarium wilt severity, showing a disease index of 26.2% that was 67.9% lower than the pathogen alone treatment. Additionally, Z-21 significantly increased shoot length (62.93%), root length (136.16%), and dry biomass (42.42%), compared to the negative control. We elucidated metabolomic mechanisms underlying Z-21-induced systemic resistance in chili plants. Z-21 increased total phenolic compounds by 37.54% and enhanced activities of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes by 2.12-fold and 1.78-fold, respectively, compared to the pathogen control. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-QQQ-ESI-MS) revealed that strain Z-21 effectively altered the metabolomic profile of chili plants. The application of Z-21 significantly increased the levels of numerous metabolites in chili plants that were reduced by Fusarium wilt infection. Metabolites present in the culture filtrates of Z-21 were identified by GC/MS analysis and used as ligands in molecular docking analysis. In-silico molecular docking analysis showed that di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and 2,2'-methylenebis-6-t-butyl-4-methylphenol (MBBM) had the highest docking scores towards defence-related receptor kinase proteins. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Rhizobium nepotum as a biocontrol agent against Fusarium wilt in chili through induced systemic resistance (ISR).

The application of nanotechnology in agriculture offers promising solutions to enhance crop resilience against drought, a major constraint to global agricultural productivity. This study investigated the role of foliar-applied calcium nanoparticles (Ca-NPs; 100 mg L⁻¹) in modulating drought responses in rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), using the drought-tolerant genotype ZD622 under drought conditions (10

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0343965.].

The present study reports the metabolic profiling and antimicrobial evaluation of Vitex negundo seed extract. UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS analysis identified seventeen bioactive phytoconstituents, correlated with the observed antimicrobial and antifungal activities. Among them, isoorientin (-7.3 kcal mol ⁻ ¹), quercetin (-7.8 kcal mol ⁻ ¹), and orientin (-7.4 kcal mol ⁻ ¹) exhibited strong binding affinities towards Staph Gyrase B (24 kDa). Similarly, isoorientin (-8.1 kcal mol ⁻ ¹), quercetin (-8.4 kcal mol ⁻ ¹), and orientin (-8.3 kcal mol ⁻ ¹) displayed significant interactions with secreted aspartic proteinase (SAP2) enzyme, confirming their antimicrobial potential. The aqueous-methanolic seed extract demonstrated notable inhibitory activity against Staphylococcus aureus (26.4 ± 0.3 mm; 44.08% inhibition) and Candida albicans (25.7 ± 0.4 mm; 29.73% inhibition). Density functional theory (DFT) calculations at B3LYP/6-31G level were used to optimize the ground state geometries of the identified phytochemicals and analyze their frontier molecular orbitals (FMOs) and global reactivity descriptors. Time-dependent DFT (TDDFT) calculations at the B3LYP/6-311G level (solvent: DMSO) further explored their biological relevance and nonlinear optical (NLO) properties, including ionization potential (IP), molecular electrostatic potential (MEP), and HOMO-LUMO energy gaps. These quantum chemical parameters provided mechanistic insights into the antimicrobial potential of the identified constituents. Molecular docking simulations further confirmed strong geometric complementarity and favorable binding affinities, highlighting the Vitex negundo seed extract as a promising source of a novel medicinal agent with previously unreported antifungal and antibacterial activities.

The irrigation of crops with wastewater can lead to the accumulation of heavy metals (HMs), posing environmental and health risks. This study analyzed HMs in industrial wastewater, soils, and food crops around Hattar Industrial Estate (HIE), Pakistan. Wastewater and soil samples were assessed for physicochemical properties, and all samples were digested and analyzed for HMs using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). HMs levels varied consistently across water, soils, and crops at six sites, with accumulation in crops following the order: Ca > Cu > Mn > Zn > Cr > Ni > As > Al > Cd > Co > Pb > Se. Leafy crops showed higher bioaccumulation than fruit and root/tuber crops, with Zn exhibiting the highest Bioaccumulation Factor (BF). Pearson’s correlation and principal component analyses revealed positive correlations among metals and identified potential sources of crop contamination. In vitro gastrointestinal assays indicated HMs bioaccessibility ranging from 0–94

Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) cultivation increasingly faces challenges from arsenic (As) contamination, which disrupts plant metabolism through oxidative stress and antioxidant enzyme inhibition. This study investigated the potential of manganese nanoparticles (MnNPs) to alleviate As toxicity across five genetically distinct B. napus cultivars under hydroponic conditions. Plants were exposed to varying concentrations of As (0, 100, and 200 mu M) and MnNPs (0, 50, and 100 mu M) to evaluate treatment efficacy. Results demonstrated that As stress (200 mu M) severely reduced leaf fresh weight (43.88-77.57%), root fresh weight (69.35-91.2%), and photosynthetic efficiency while significantly increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation across all cultivars. Conversely, the application of 100 mu M MnNPs substantially ameliorated these effects, increasing leaf fresh weight by 25.26-70.65%, improving photosynthetic rate by 61.94-77.27%, and restoring stomatal conductance by 43.48-58.83% compared to As-only treatment. Additionally, MnNPs significantly reduced oxidative stress markers in both leaf and root tissues while upregulating antioxidant enzyme activities beyond levels induced by As stress alone. Metabolic analysis complemented these physiological findings, revealing variety-specific profiles with ZD 622 exhibiting high hexenol acetates, while the combined MnNPs + As treatment induced the strongest metabolic response, suggesting synergistic stress defense effects. Notably, cultivars exhibited distinct genotype variations, with ZD 635 and ZY 758 demonstrating superior As tolerance following MnNP treatment, whereas ZD 622 showed the least tolerance. These findings collectively highlight MnNPs' effectiveness in enhancing B. napus productivity in As-contaminated environments by improving stress tolerance mechanisms, underscoring their potential as a valuable nano-agronomic intervention.

Despite the widespread use of bioinoculants to improve crop productivity, their combined influence on seed metabolic composition and nutritional quality, especially through coordinated changes in primary and secondary metabolism, remains poorly understood. In this work, we investigated the individual and synergistic effects of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on the metabolic profile, antioxidants, and ionic composition of soybean seeds. Results revealed significant increases in essential amino acids, especially with PGPR + AMF treatment, indicating improved nitrogen assimilation. The contents of cystine, phenylalanine, and tyrosine was also significantly elevated, with AMF and the combined treatment (PGPR + AMF) showing the highest levels. Primary metabolites like amino acids and organic acids (e.g., succinic acid) accumulated significantly, serving as precursors and signaling molecules that stimulate secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Consequently, phenolics, flavonoids, and isoflavones increased markedly following microbial inoculation. These secondary metabolites enhanced antioxidant capacity and plant defense, shown by higher total phenol and tocopherol levels, particularly under combined PGPR + AMF treatment. Improvements in saturated and unsaturated fatty acid profiles further indicate that bioinoculants can elevate the nutritional and industrial quality of soybean seeds. Overall, the buildup of primary metabolites supports the synthesis of antioxidant-rich secondary metabolites, highlighting bioinoculants’ role in enriching seed composition, boosting crop health and resilience, and agro-nutritional value.

Cadmium (Cd) contamination poses a significant threat to plant growth and agricultural safety. Allantoin has emerged as a key modulator in plant abiotic stress tolerance. To evaluate its protective role, Brassica napus plants were subjected to 50 µM cadmium chloride (CdCl2) with or without exogenous allantoin supplementation (2, 5 and 8 mM), and the growth, physiological, biochemical and gene expression parameters were examined. Under 50 µM Cd stress, 5 mM allantoin (CA5) treatment demonstrated optimal alleviation of Cd stress toxicity, increasing plant height by 10

Background: Heat waves following anthesis significantly affect leaf physiology and grain yield of bread wheat in most parts of the world. Purpose: The aim of this study was to measure the impact of heat damage on wheat leaf physiology and grain yield, as well as to develop a technique to recover from heat induced damage by applying zinc (Zn), which plays a role in leaf physiology, plant defense, enzyme activation and membrane stability under abiotic stresses. Methods: Wheat genotypes, Anaj-17 (relatively heat susceptible) and Ujala-16 (relatively heat tolerant), were grown in pots and subjected to heat stress for seven days under polythene sheets one and two-weeks after anthesis (Zodak 69 and 71). Before the imposition of heat stress, wheat plants were sprayed with 0.2