Bien que la consommation de viande bovine ait diminué au cours des dernières années au niveau européen, la France demeure le premier producteur et consommateur de l’Union européenne. La filière française se distingue par la diversité de ses productions qui s’appuient sur des types d’animaux divers : vaches, génisses, taurillons et boeufs de diverses races et conduits dans différents systèmes de production. Cette diversité est à l’origine de qualités sensorielles et nutritionnelles variées. L’objectif de cet article est de faire le point sur les principales qualités demandées à la viande bovine et de présenter les questions de recherches majeures.

Bien que la consommation de viande ovine s’érode régulièrement en France depuis 25 ans, la viande d’agneau porte une forte valeur symbolique, culturelle et cultuelle. La filière française est caractérisée par une grande diversité de systèmes de production et de races auxquelles correspondent différents modes d’élevage et d’engraissement des agneaux, avec des conséquences importantes sur la qualité sensorielle et nutritionnelle des carcasses et des viandes. L’objectif de cet article est de faire le point sur les principales qualités demandées à la viande ovine et de présenter les questions de recherches majeures.

This study aimed to determine the effect of gender on nutritive value of dromedary camel longissimus lumborum (collagen content, amino acids and fatty acids). Fourteen longissimus lumborum (LL) muscles (from 7 males and 7 females) were collected from 2 to 3year old camels. Animals were fattened by herders and slaughtered following commercial slaughterhouse procedures in Sudan. Samples were collected between the 1st and 5th lumbar vertebrae of the right carcass side. There was no effect of gender on intramuscular fat content, insoluble OH proline and total OH proline (μg/DM). Additionally no significant differences were found in amino acid composition between genders. However, muscles from female camels had significantly (P<0.05) higher arginine content (1460mg/100g) than males (1460mg/100g). The results showed no significant differences between genders for total saturated fatty acid (SFA), mono-unsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) proportions in camel meat. In contrast significant differences were revealed for some specific MUFA and PUFA (18:1 delta 10–11 trans, × 1.51, (P=0.05), CLA (trans 11, cis 9 18:2, × 1.33% (P=0.11) and trans 10, cis 12 18:2, × 5.7, (P=0.03) in female muscles). PUFA/SFA ratio was found closer to the recommended value for human nutrition (0.45). Also the n-6/n-3 ratio was lower than the recommended values for healthy human diets (4.0). Altogether, these results indicated high nutritive value of dromedary camel meat compared to meat from other farm animals.

The present study compared eight breeds of cattle differing in gender(heifers, bulls and steers) to determine associations between muscle characteristics and meat sensory qualities of the Longissimus thoracis muscle. Animal types differed in all the muscle characteristics and sensory qualities. Many correlations among muscle characteristics and among sensory qualities were consistent for most animal types. Isocitrate dehydrogenase(ICDH) activities allowed discrimination of muscles with respect to myosin heavy chain(My HC)-I proportions for all animal types. Lactate dehydrogenase(LDH) and phosphofructokinase(PFK) activities were positively correlated for most animal types. Overall liking was correlated with beef flavour and abnormal flavour in all animal types and with global tenderness for all animal types except for Charolais cross breed steers. For all animal types except for Angus×Friesian heifers, beef flavour and abnormal flavour were negatively correlated. Overall liking was not correlated with juiciness. PFK, ICDH and citrate synthase(CS) activities were strongly associated with tenderness, beef flavour and overall liking when average values for all animal types were used. However, associations between muscle characteristics and sensory qualities within animal types were weak and inconsistent.

Cette synthèse présente l’influence des caractéristiques des animaux et de leurs conditions d’élevage sur les qualités des viandes et des chairs des principales espèces animales d’élevage (porc, bovins, ovins, poulets, poissons). Les dimensions intrinsèques (composition des carcasses, qualités sensorielle, nutritionnelle et technologique) et extrinsèques (interactions entre productions animales et environnement, bien-être des animaux, origine des produits, authenticité des pratiques de production…) de la qualité des produits sont considérées. Dans toutes les espèces, le type génétique et la conduite alimentaire sont les principaux déterminants de la composition des carcasses. La nature de l’alimentation des animaux constitue le principal levier pour moduler la qualité nutritionnelle, toutefois le niveau d’enrichissement des viandes et chairs en acides gras, minéraux ou vitamines favorables à la santé humaine varie selon les espèces. Pour une espèce donnée, les caractéristiques des animaux, leurs conditions d’élevage et d’abattage interagissent pour déterminer les propriétés (teneurs en lipides, glycogène, myoglobine…) et le métabolisme péri et post-mortem des muscles, et consécutivement la qualité sensorielle des viandes ou chairs et de leurs produits. A l’inverse, la qualité technologique, composante importante dans les filières porc, poulet et poisson résulte essentiellement du type génétique et des conditions d’abattage des animaux et de transformation des viandes. Dans les différentes filières animales, les qualités extrinsèques des produits font partie intégrante de certaines démarches collectives ou privées et sont garanties aux consommateurs au travers des signes officiels de qualité. Elles visent à améliorer les interactions favorables entre les productions animales et l’environnement et/ou le bien-être des animaux, garantir l’origine des produits et/ou valoriser l’authenticité des méthodes de production et de transformation. Différents exemples sont développés pour illustrer la prise en compte par les acteurs des filières de cette demande croissante des consommateurs et plus largement des citoyens envers leur alimentation.

Intramuscular fat depot is of major interest for consumers, producers, and the industry. To predict intramuscular (i.m.) lipid deposition in cattle of continental breeds, different models were constructed for different muscles in bulls, steers, and cows. Two independent databases (DB1 and DB2) were developed with homogeneous individual data collected in the same slaughterhouse and total lipids, phospholipids, and triglycerides were analyzed in the same lab with the same procedures. Database DB1 was used with the meta-analysis methodology to fit the predictive models of i.m. lipids, phospholipids, and triglycerides with carcass fatness. Database DB2 was used to evaluate the accuracy of the models predicted. Total lipid and triglyceride contents varied linearly with carcass fatness in bulls, steers, and cows, but phospholipids were more independent of carcass fatness, regardless of the type of cattle studied. In bulls, LM had a lower minimal value (intercept in the model) and greater slope than semitendinosus (ST) and triceps brachii (TB) muscles. In cows, LM showed a greater intercept than ST and TB muscles but a similar slope. In steers, lipid content increased similarly in LM, rectus abdominis (RA) muscle, and ST muscle with carcass fatness. Bulls had a lower intercept than steers but showed a similar trend with carcass fatness. According to the external evaluation using DB2, the models obtained to predict total lipids in LM were more accurate than those obtained in the ST muscle in bulls and cows and in the RA muscle in steers. The models proposed for cows should be used only in the range of carcass fatness used to fit the equations, and further data are needed to fully validate them.

While beef consumption has declined in recent years in Europe, France is the first producer and consumer in the European Union. The French sector is characterized by its diversity of productions that are based on various types of animals: cows, heifers, bulls and steers of various breeds and conducted under different systems. This diversity is at the origin of different sensory and nutritional qualities. The purpose of this article is to review the main qualities required of this meat and present major research questions.

Although its consumption has regularly declined in France since 25 years, lamb meat bears a high symbolic value, both cultural and religious. The French sector is characterized by a high diversity of production systems and breeds to which correspond different lamb rearing and fattening practices, which have important implications for the sensory and nutritional quality of the meat and the carcass. The purpose of this paper is to review the main qualities required for lamb meat and present the major research questions.

The aim of this study was to compare the responses in fattening performance and meat composition for high-concentrate diets rich in either starch and lipids (especially omega-3 fatty acids) or fibrous by-products. A total of 140 Charolais bulls (initially 319 ± 27 kg BW) were allocated to 3 high-concentrate diets and were fattened for up to 18 mo. The diet treatments included concentrate mixtures rich in either fiber (FR; n = 56) or starch plus linseed (diets SL and SLR; n = 56 and n = 28, respectively) and barley straw. The concentrate mix was offered ad libitum in SL and FR diets but was kept isoenergetic to the FR diet in the SLR diet. Bulls were weighed every 15 d. Feed intake was measured daily. Carcass composition was assessed for all animals slaughtered at 699 ± 65 kg BW. Meat nutritional quality traits (e.g., fat content and fatty acid composition focusing on n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids) were measured on the longissimus thoracis, rectus abdominis, and semitendinosus muscles. Metabolic enzyme activity (phosphofructokinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and cytochrome-c oxidase) was measured on these muscles and on liver. The SL diet bulls had greater fattening performance, BW gain (P = 0.006), and efficiency for growth (P = 0.025) at an energy intake similar to that of FR diet bulls. They also had heavier carcasses with a greater proportion of fat. However, liver samples showed no difference in specific metabolic activity. Compared to bulls fed the SL diet, bulls fed SLR consumed 15% less energy and had lower BW gain (P < 0.001) but were slightly more efficient for growth (P = 0.010). They had lower carcass weight but a greater muscle-to-fat ratio. Compared to bulls fed the FR diet, SLR bulls had lower than planned NEg intake and lower BW gain but did not have differences in body composition. Compared to the FR diet, the SL diet led to a greater omega-3 fatty acid content because of a greater supply of dietary linoleic acid, especially in lean muscle.

This review describes the influences of the characteristics of animals and their rearing conditions on the quality of meat and flesh in the main livestock species (pig, cattle, sheep, poultry, fish). Both the intrinsic (carcass composition and sensory, nutritional and technological qualities) and extrinsic (interactions between animal production and the environment, animal welfare, origin of products, authenticity of production practices.) dimensions of quality of meat and flesh products are considered. In all animal species, the genotype and feeding practices are the main factors determining carcass composition. Feed composition is the main factor modulating nutritional quality, even though the enrichment level of meat or flesh with fatty acids, minerals or vitamins favorable for human health depends on the species considered. Within species, interactions between the characteristics of animals and their rearing and slaughtering conditions determine the properties (intramuscular fat, glycogen, myoglobin contents.) and peri and postmortem metabolism of muscles and, consequently, the sensory quality of meat or flesh and their products. Conversely, the technological quality of meat, which is important especially for pig, poultry and fish mainly results from the animal genotype and the slaughtering and processing techniques. In all meat animal chains, some productions are differentiated on claims on extrinsic qualities of products and are guaranteed to consumers by official quality schemes. They aim at improving the positive interactions between animal production and environment and/or animal welfare, or guaranteeing products origin or authenticity of production and processing methods. Some examples are described to underline the awareness of meat chain actors about the increasing demand from consumers and more generally citizens towards their diet.

La production de viande artificielle par culture de cellules est proposée par certains scientifiques comme une des solutions pour répondre aux grands enjeux de l’élevage : i) réduire le mal-être supposé des animaux dans les élevages modernes, voire ne pas tuer les animaux pour les manger, ii) réduire la possible dégradation de l’environnement par l’élevage et iii) réduire la faim dans le monde en augmentant le niveau des ressources protéiques alimentaires. La viande artificielle supprimerait en effet le mal-être supposé des animaux lié à l’élevage et permettrait de ne pas abattre les animaux pour les manger. L’impact environnemental de la viande artificielle est difficile à évaluer en l’absence de données sur le fonctionnement d’une usine de production. La viande artificielle présenterait toutefois un intérêt modéré pour réduire les gaz à effet de serre et la pollution par les nitrates, un intérêt limité quant à l’utilisation des énergies fossiles, voire très limité pour limiter les besoins en eau, mais elle libérerait des terres cultivables. Elle entraînerait probablement dans l’eau des résidus de molécules de synthèse. De nombreux experts estiment que les causes de la malnutrition actuelle de certaines populations sont multiples et ne sont pas directement liées à un manque de ressources alimentaires. Bien que la culture de cellules soit couramment pratiquée en laboratoire, il existe des verrous techniques importants à lever pour une production à grande échelle, tels que le coût rédhibitoire des technologies actuelles et le manque de ressemblance du produit obtenu à de la viande issue d’animaux. Sur le plan nutritionnel, la viande artificielle ne présente pas d’avantage particulier par rapport à un autre aliment élaboré à partir de l’ensemble des nutriments nécessaires à sa production. Les critères d’acceptabilité de la viande artificielle renvoient, d’une part, à des questions d’ordre moral ou éthique concernant la technologie et les inquiétudes qu’elle soulève, et d’autre part, à des considérations classiques relatives aux produits alimentaires (prix, qualité, naturalité…). Par le passé, les expériences de substitution des protéines animales par des produits analogues ont échoué en raison, notamment, de contraintes économiques, du temps nécessaire pour l’éventuelle acceptation des produits par les consommateurs et pour la délivrance des autorisations de mise sur le marché. Face aux questionnements importants concernant l’élevage, la production de viande artificielle ne présente pas aujourd’hui d’avantages majeurs par comparaison à la viande naturelle ou à d’autres alternatives possibles telles que rééquilibrer notre alimentation en diversifiant les sources de protéines végétales et animales, ou encore développer des systèmes d’élevage plus respectueux des animaux et de l’environnement.

The production of artificial meat by cell culture is suggested by some scientists as one solution to address the major challenges facing our society: (i) reducing potential discomfort of animals on modern farms or avoiding killing animals to eat them (ii) reducing potential environmental degradation by livestock and (iii) reducing world hunger by increasing protein resources. Artificial meat would indeed eliminate any animal "suffering" in farming systems and would avoid the slaughtering of animals to eat them. The environmental impact of artificial meat is difficult to evaluate due to the absence of references on production units. However, it may have a moderate interest in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and pollution by nitrates, a limited interest for decreasing fossil fuel use or a very limited interest concerning water use, but it would make more land available. It may result in the presence of organic molecule residues in water. Nevertheless, many experts believe that the causes of the current malnutrition of some human populations are diverse, and not directly related to a lack of food resources. Although cell culture can be usually performed in laboratories, there are significant major technical difficulties to move towards a large-scale production as the prohibitive cost of current technologies and the lack of similarity of the obtained product with meat from animals. From a nutritional point of view, artificial meat has no particular advantage compared to another type of food made from all nutrients necessary for its production. The criteria for acceptability of artificial meat refer, first, to moral or ethical concerns about the technology and the worries it raises, and secondly, to usual food product concerns (price, quality, naturality, etc.). In the past, attempts to substitute animal proteins with similar products have failed due to economic constraints, the time required for potential product acceptance by consumers and permission to place the products on the market by public authorities. In conclusion, given the important challenges facing livestock, production of artificial meat does not present any major advantage compared to natural meat or to other options such as balancing human food supply by more diverse sources of plant and animal proteins, or developing friendly farming systems for animals and the environment. Technical, economic and social constraints, including uncertain acceptance by consumers of artificial foods, are indeed major limitations to the development of artificial meat.

N-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFA) are subject of growing interest as they are of particular relevance for meat quality and human health. However, their content in the muscles of cattle is generally low probably as the complex result of their biosynthesis from dietary n-3 PUFA in the muscle and/or in other tissues/organs and of their subsequent uptake by the muscle. In view of this, this study aimed at understanding whether the changes in the muscle n-3 LCPUFA content, depending on the diet (maize silage v. grass) or the muscle type (Rectus abdominis, RA v. Semitendinosus, ST) in 12 Charolais steers, were related to variations in the gene expression of proteins involved in n-3 LCPUFA biosynthesis or cellular uptake. Tissue fatty acid composition was analysed by gas-liquid chromatography and mRNA abundance of proteins by quantitative real-time PCR. The grass-based diet resulted in a 2.3-fold (P < 0.0002) increase in both RA and ST n-3 LCPUFA content compared with the maize silage-based diet, whereas no difference in the expression of genes involved in n-3 LCPUFA biosynthesis and uptake was observed between diets. ST exhibited a 1.5-fold higher n-3 LCPUFA content than RA (P < 0.003), whereas the gene expression of proteins involved in n-3 LCPUFA biosynthesis and uptake was 1.3- to 18-fold higher in RA than in ST (P < 0.05). In conclusion, diet- or muscle type-dependent changes in the muscle n-3 LCPUFA content of Charolais steers did not seem to be mediated by the gene expression regulation of proteins involved in the biosynthesis or uptake of these fatty acids.

N-3 long-chain (LC) PUFA are known to be beneficial for human development and health. These properties explain the increasing interest in promoting n-3 LC PUFA deposition in bovine muscles, leading to healthier meats. In this context, this study aimed to identify possible limiting steps in the bioconversion of 18:3n-3 into n-3 LC PUFA in the longissimus thoracis (LT) muscle of 36 Aberdeen Angus, Limousin, and Blond d'Aquitaine bulls (n = 12 per breed) that were fed, for the 105-d finishing period, either a concentrate-based diet (25% molasses straw to 75% concentrate, on a raw basis; CON) or the same CON diet supplemented with extruded linseed (44.5 g lipid/kg diet DM) mixed into the concentrate (LINS). The fatty acid (FA) composition of the LT muscle was determined by GLC, and the mRNA abundances for enzymes and transcription factors involved in n-3 LC PUFA synthesis were determined by quantitative real-time PCR. The total lipid concentration in the LT muscle was approximately 2.4-fold greater (P < 0.001) in Angus bulls than in the other breeds and composed of the greatest n-3 PUFA content (P < 0.001) including 18:3n-3 (P < 0.001) and n-3 LC PUFA (P < 0.02), primarily 20:5n-3 (P < 0.007) and 22:5n-3 (P < 0.04). These data were associated with a lesser gene expression (P < 0.02) of 2 enzymes [acyl-CoA oxidase 1 (ACOX1) and L-bifunctional protein (L-PBE)] and 2 transcription factors [liver X receptors (LXR) α and β] in the LT muscle of Angus bulls compared with gene expression in Limousin bulls. Moreover, the mRNA of elongase 5 was only present in trace amounts in the LT muscle of the 3 breeds. The addition of linseed to the diet resulted in greater deposition of 18:3n-3 (P < 0.001) in the LT muscles of the 3 breeds, without any major changes (P > 0.34) in the n-3 LC PUFA content. Dietary linseed stimulated (P < 0.04) the gene expression of all enzymes and transcription factors involved in n-3 LC PUFA synthesis except elongases 2 and 5 (P > 0.19), the expression of which remained weak and was not inducible. These results reveal a limited capacity for n-3 LC PUFA synthesis from 18:4n-3 (substrate of elongase 5) in the LT muscles of Blond d'Aquitaine, Limousin, and Angus bulls. Therefore, further investigations on the cellular regulation of elongase gene expression are needed to identify the physiological or nutritional factors that efficiently stimulate elongase expression in beef cattle.

Muscovy duck has a higher ability to develop hepatic steatosis than Pekin duck. This could result from a lower ability of liver to secrete lipids and lipoproteins. To test this hypothesis, we measured the liver apoB-VLDL secretion in Muscovy and Pekin ducks ad libitum-fed by injecting a flooding dose of [1-C-13] -valine. In a first experiment, we found that the delay required for the secretion of apoB by the liver was similar for Muscovy and Pekin ducks (25 min, approximatively). In a second study, the liver ability for apoB synthesis and secretion in both species was assessed in vivo 55 min after the injection of the flooding dose of [1-C-13] -valine. The fractional apoB-VLDL synthesis rates was similar for Muscovy and Pekin ducks (P = 0.449). However, TG concentration measured in plasma VLDL 3 h after the last meal was higher in Pekin ducks than in Muscovy ducks. Pekin duck seemed to limit the accumulation of lipids in liver by increasing the TG content in VLDL without increasing apoB secretion. Consequently, plasma lipids could participate to the higher lipid deposition in adipose and muscle tissues. However, the concentration of TG-VLDL in plasma results from a balance between liver secretion, peripheral tissue uptake and liver uptake. These last mechanisms require further investigation.

The aim of this study was to assess the feasibility of near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) for predicting lamb meat fatty acid composition. We compared ground vs. intact non-ground meat samples to determine whether grinding and homogenisation of meat samples improved the performance of the predictions. We used 76 male lambs, of which 32 were pasture-fed and 44 stall-fed with concentrate and hay. The reflectance spectrum of Longissimus lumborum muscle was measured at wavelengths between 400 and 2500nm. Predictions were better with ground than with intact muscle samples. NIRS accurately predicts several individual fatty acids (FA) (16:0, 18:0, 16:1 Δ9 cis, 17:1 Δ9 cis, 18:1 Δ9 cis, 18:1 Δ11 cis and 16:1 Δ9 trans) and several FA groups (total linear saturated FA, total branched saturated FA, total saturated FA, total cis monounsaturated FA (MUFA), total trans MUFA, total MUFA and total polyunsaturated PUFA). These results show the potential of NIRS as a rapid, and convenient tool to predict the major FA in lamb meat.

Seven- to 10-month-old calves are the typical production of Galician Blond (GB), the most important bovine local beef breed in Spain. As meat lipid repercussions on human health depend on their fatty acid (FA) profile, this study aimed at analysing the individual FA at weaning and at the end of the feeding finishing period, especially trans and cis 18:1 isomers in total lipids of the Longissimus thoracis muscle in GB male calves. Distribution of main FA in veal lipids was characterized by gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) analysis on a high polar glass capillary column. Total trans and cis 18:1 isomers were purified, from total FA (TFA) methyl esters, by preparative reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, to allow subsequent specific analysis of their different isomers by GLC. Calves stayed with their mothers at pasture for 2 or 5 months in intensive or semi-extensive systems, followed by an indoor feeding period. The weaned (W) group was finished on concentrate and hay, whereas the non-weaned (NW) group was finished on concentrate and hay and it continued suckling until slaughter. The studied effects did not present interactions. The duration of the indoor finishing period hardly had a significant influence on the parameters analysed. Compared to W calves, NW calves had higher proportions (% TFA) of 18:3n-3 (+38%, P < 0.0001), 20:5n-3 (+22%, P = 0.005), 22:5n-3 (+13%, P = 0.042), cis monounsaturated FA (MUFA; +8%, P = 0.032), total MUFA (+8%, P = 0.013), n-3 polyunsaturated FA (PUFA; +25%, P = 0.0001) and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA; +48%, P < 0.0001) to the detriment of 18:0 (-10%, P = 0.002), 18:2n-6 (-25%, P = 0.004) and n-6 PUFA (-20%, P = 0.011). With regard to cis and trans 18:1 isomers, NW calves had higher proportions (% total cis or trans 18:1) of Δ11trans and Δ16trans (+25% and +22%, respectively, P < 0.01) and Δ13 + 14trans (+13%, P < 0.05) and lower proportions of Δ6 to 8 and Δ10trans (-28% and 58%, respectively, P < 0.001). NW calves' meat might be more suitable for human health than W calves' meat due to the increase of anti-atherogenous FA such as n-3 PUFA, CLA and 18:1 Δ11trans.