Streamlined subglacial bedforms, including drumlins, mega‐scale glacial lineations, crag‐and‐tails and roche moutonnées, provide evidence for the past flow of large mid‐latitude ice sheets during the late Quaternary. Empirical reconstructions of palaeo‐ice sheet flow, based on such landforms, provide valuable insights into how ice sheets evolve over time and adjust their internal dynamics in response to climate change. We present a new 25‐stage reconstruction of changing flow directions of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet (SIS) based on systematic mapping of ~240 000 subglacial bedforms across Norway, Sweden, Finland and parts of NW Russia. Of these, 23 stages depict the ice flow evolution during advance and retreat of the SIS through Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 2. Two additional stages likely represent flow patterns of an earlier ice sheet (potentially MIS 4 or older). Our reconstruction was enabled by the recent revolution in the availability of high‐resolution (1–2 m) digital terrain models. It is based on 611 flowsets, which summarise discrete ice‐flow patterns recorded by subglacial lineations and are individually categorised by their glaciodynamic contexts. The reconstruction honours the relative‐age chronology of flowsets indicated by cross‐cutting relationships of the subglacial lineations. We reconstruct, and provide maps of, changing ice‐sheet flow patterns and the migration of ice divides starting with ice‐sheet inception, through advance and subsequent deglaciation, and ultimately the fragmentation into independent ice masses. The primary ice divide migrated up to 500 km and developed a branched configuration during deglaciation. The reconstruction of SIS flow patterns we present is the most detailed and comprehensive to date, and the fact that we independently verify many properties of the ice sheet invoked by earlier workers is testament to the quality, rigour and enduring legacies of those studies. We release flowsets, relative chronology and flow‐pattern data along with a dataset of ~58 000 lineation linkages which summarise our detailed landform mapping and were invaluable for reconstructing ice‐flow patterns at the ice‐sheet‐scale. In releasing these data, we intend for them to serve as useful inputs or comparative data for future studies in palaeoglaciology. This includes, for example, approaches combining flow pattern information with numerical ice sheet modelling to improve representations of ice sheet behaviour. Such improvements should yield increased robustness of information on time‐varying glacio‐isostatic loading by the ice sheet, relevant for sea‐level forecasting. Our datasets also have wide utility for applications beyond palaeoglaciology, such as for mineral exploration.

Glacial landforms hold a wealth of information about the evolution of large mid-latitude ice sheets during the Quaternary. Streamlined subglacial lineations retain information about past ice flow, subglacial meltwater routes provide information about ice sheet hydrology, and ice-marginal landforms that are eroded or deposited along glacier margins delineate former ice-marginal positions. Thus, the rich landform records found on the now-exposed beds of ephemeral Pleistocene ice sheets provide important archives of palaeo-ice sheet behaviour that can be used to reconstruct the evolution of ice sheets. Over the past few years, I have had the privilege of using high resolution remotely sensed data to study the glacial landform record across three northern Hemispheric Pleistocene ice sheets: the central sector of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet in British Columbia, Canada; the north-west sector of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the Northwest Territories, Canada; and the Scandinavian Ice Sheet across Norway, Sweden, and Finland.Glacial landforms are presented from each of these ice sheets, with a particular focus on ice-marginal landforms, which are important indicators of ice extent, retreat pattern and the terminal environment. The character, distribution and diversity of these landforms is investigated and reveals both similarities and differences in ice marginal settings and dynamics as well as the thermal regime of the former ice sheets. There are similarities between the mountainous regions on the bed of the Cordilleran and Scandinavian ice sheets, both of which were particularly important for ice sheet inception and during the demise, and there are similarities in the distribution of hummocky moraines in the polar regions of the Laurentide and Scandinavian ice sheets (above 60°N). Differences in the ice-marginal landform record are also considered and may arise due to variations in large-scale ice sheet dynamics with the three ice sheet sectors varying in terms of ice volume, timing of retreat, influence of marine or lacustrine terminating margins, and the dynamics of their coalescence with and splitting from adjacent ice sheets.

Under current climate conditions the Greenland and Antarctic sheets are rapidly losing mass and these losses are projected to accelerate into the future. Consequently, potential changes in the ice marginal environment across these ice sheets are a future concern. Palaeo-ice sheets, such as the Scandinavian Ice Sheet, provide an opportunity to investigate ice-marginal changes over longer timescales that span a variety of physiographic and geological settings and climate conditions. Landform signatures across Fennoscandia reveal a range of palaeo-ice marginal settings, including lake-terminating, marine-terminating, and higher-altitude environments. This makes the landform record of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet a rich and diverse archive for studying ice margin behaviour. Furthermore, high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) that exist for the former bed of this ice sheet allow us to examine ice marginal settings and dynamics in unprecedented and consistent detail across Norway, Sweden and Finland. We present a geomorphological ice margin dataset of ~56,000 mapped features that categorises each ice margin by its dominant landform type of moraine, hummocky moraine, lateral meltwater channel or glaciofluvial sediment. We then use the morphology of the landforms and overprinting relationships to determine which landforms were likely formed prior to the last deglaciation. The distribution of landform-types in our dataset provides interesting insights into the behaviour of different sectors of the ice sheet. For example, we find ice margins characterised by lateral meltwater channels are almost exclusively found in locations of Quaternary sediment cover, which may indicate that surficial sediment thickness influences their formation, rather than the thermal regime of the ice. We also find ice margins defined by hummocky moraines are more prevalent at higher latitudes. We hypotheses this pattern may be controlled by lower ablation rates at higher latitudes. Additionally, we find contrasts in the density and size of the ice margins between the aquatic and land terminating environments, which results from differences in sedimentation processes within each environment.

Palaeo-ice sheets leave behind a landform record that we can decipher to understand glaciological processes and the responses of ice sheets to warming climates. Reconstructions of past ice sheet behaviour can inform numerical ice sheet models and are important for understanding ongoing glacio-isostatic uplift. The Scandinavian Ice Sheet, which was the largest component of the Eurasian Ice Sheet Complex during the last glaciation, glaciated Fennoscandia and northern Europe. Since the 19th Century, there has been considerable research into the deglaciation pattern of Scandinavian Ice Sheet during the last Glacial-Interglacial Transition. However, many reconstructions of retreat have been conducted at local-regional scales, which can be difficult to reconcile across ice sheet-scales, and ice-sheet scale reconstructions based on consistent approaches to mapping and data sources are rare. These inconsistencies lead to difficulties in creating ice-sheet wide reconstructions of deglaciation.Using the glacial inversion approach, we combine our independently mapped ice marginal landforms, subglacial meltwater routes, and subglacial bedforms to produce a consistent ice sheet-scale assessment of deglaciation patterns across Norway, Sweden, and Finland. Here we present our latest version of the deglaciation pattern for the last Scandinavian Ice Sheet. This reconstruction has many similarities to previous efforts but adds significant detail. For example, in addition to overall retreat patterns, we capture instances of ice margin readvance. We also reconstruct a complex retreat pattern with the ice sheet breaking into small ice masses located within and adjacent to the Scandinavian Mountains.

The dynamics of the last Fennoscandian Ice Sheet (FIS) are relatively well constrained in the Nordic countries. Ice‐sheet dynamics in NW Russia, however, are comparatively less well understood owing to the scale and resolution of existing studies. New large‐scale glacial geomorphological datasets from NW Russia based on high‐resolution remotely sensed imagery allow for an independent reassessment of the extent and dynamics of the FIS during the Younger Dryas and Early Holocene (c. 12.9–10 ka) in NW Russia. The reconstruction provides a more detailed link between geomorphological expressions of palaeoglaciation than previous proposals. Rather than a continuous Younger Dryas ice marginal zone (IMZ) stretching from Finland to northern Norway, the geomorphological signature of NW Russia reveals 14 IMZs that document discrete stationary ice‐margin positions (possibly standstill and/or readvance events) during the overall retreat. The relative age sequence of the IMZs, supported by an updated numerical age database, suggests that they formed time‐transgressively during the Younger Dryas and Early Holocene rather than contemporaneously. Moreover, specific landform assemblages reveal contrasting glacial landsystems in NW Russia: (i) a northern subpolar glacial landsystem; and (ii) a southern temperate glacial landsystem. The model presented herein provides robust empirical constraints for testing and validating numerical ice‐sheet models and understanding ice‐sheet responses to rapid climate change.

While glaciation in the English Lake District and the Scottish Highlands was extensive after the retreat of the last British-Irish Ice Sheet, glaciers are thought to have been restricted to the highest uplands of southern Scotland. However, geomorphological features in the Ewes Valley indicate glacial activity in three amphitheater-shaped hollows after the retreat of the last British-Irish Ice Sheet. The geomorphological evidence of former glaciation is used to reconstruct the dimensions of three very small glaciers (totally similar to 0.3 km2) with equilibrium line altitudes (ELA) between 329 and 401 m asl. An assessment of the glacier dimensions and potential snowblow contribution area indicates that redistribution of snow via wind was essential for the development of these glaciers.

A detailed reconstruction of palaeo-ice flow configuration is lacking for the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland, northwest Arctic Russia. This study presents, for the first time, a 14-stage reconstruction of the last Fennoscandian Ice Sheet (FIS) flow configuration on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland from build-up to complete deglaciation. Flowsets (n 1/4 102) and cross-cutting bedform assemblages identified from a high-resolution subglacial bedform record (subglacial lineations and subglacial ribs) are combined with subglacially streamlined bedrock data to define ice flow patterns, ice divides, ice margins, and glaciation styles of the last glaciation through relative time.The results demonstrate that the FIS flow configuration was not static. The FIS advanced eastwards across the region from Scandinavia, rather than expanding from local upland areas, and established a predominantly cold-based ice mass on the Kola Peninsula with an extensive adjacent warm-based ice lobe in the White Sea. An east-west aligned ice divide was located on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland during the ice sheet build-up stages. However, this divide was short-lived as the White Sea lobe dominated ice flow on the peninsula during the local-Last Glacial Maximum, and ice predominantly flowed across the region from the main ice dispersal zone that was centred over the Gulf of Bothnia during deglaciation. Deglaciation on the peninsula was initially characterised by cold-based ice sheet retreat on the central eastern Kola Peninsula and warm-based ice lobe retreat in the White Sea. Continued deglaciation was characterised by ice sheet thinning, exposing mountain summits as nunataks behind the ice sheet margin, with topography constraining ice flow around upland areas. Ice streams in the region were drivers and consequences of continued ice sheet configuration change throughout glaciation. Four palaeo ice streams -(i) the Imandra Ice Stream; (ii) the Lovozero Ice Stream; (iii) the Kanozero Ice Stream; and (iv) the Kuusamo Ice Stream -and three possible palaeo-ice stream pathways are identified.We consider our ice flow configuration reconstruction to be the simplest palaeo-glaciological inter-pretation of the bedform record of the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland. The empirically-based reconstruction of ice flow geometry provides a regional framework and context for interpreting re-sults from local-scale fieldwork, and is presented in a format that can be utilised by numerical ice sheet modellers to test and verify their models. The results underpin a new data-driven reconstruction of the last FIS in northwest Arctic Russia that we present in Part 2 of this study.Crown Copyright (c) 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

At present, there remains uncertainty surrounding the Younger Dryas-early Holocene glacial history of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet in northwest Arctic Russia. This stems from a lack of high-resolution ice sheet-scale geomorphological data in the region. To address this, this paper presents 15,355 meltwater and morainic landforms in a new large-scale, glacial geomorphological map of the Younger Dryas-early Holocene ice marginal zone in the Republic of Karelia, northwest Russia. Individual landforms were mapped from relief-shaded renditions of the 2 m resolution ArcticDEM alongside 1 m resolution Esri World Imagery data in a Geographic Information System (GIS). The map, which is presented at a scale of 1: 675,000, will form the basis of a palaeo-glaciological reconstruction of northwest Russia that will inform on ice sheet dynamics – at both a regional- and ice sheet-scale – and provide an important framework through which numerical ice sheet models can be constrained.

The pattern, style, and timing of glaciation of the last Fennoscandian Ice Sheet (FIS) on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland (northwest Arctic Russia) is widely debated. This is due, in part, to the lower -resolution empirical data used in previous investigations. In this paper, we present an ice margin reconstruction, an updated database of previously published numerical ages, and a new time-slice reconstruction. The reconstruction, which is presented across a series of 10 maps, documents the spatial evolution of the ice sheet every 1000 years between 16 and 11 ka, and for four selected time periods back to 29 ka (19-17, 21-20, 25-22, and 29-26 ka). Our reconstruction indicates that the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland was probably ice-free prior to the advance of the FIS c. 29 ka. The FIS reached its maximum lateral extent in northwest Arctic Russia c. 19-17 ka, later than many other sectors of the ice sheet. This disparity probably arises as a result of both the topography of Fennoscandia and the position of the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland in a precipitation shadow of the Scandinavian Mountains. Thus, FIS glaciation in northwest Arctic Russia was strongly influenced by a fluctuating climate. Most of the FIS in northwest Arctic Russia was terrestrial -based, although marine-terminating margins existed in the fjords of northern Russian Lapland. The retreat of the White Sea lobe was probably not influenced by marine transgression until c. 12 ka because palaeo-sea levels during most of the Late Weichselian were considerably lower than present, and a shallow sill in the Mouth of the White Sea would have inhibited ocean waters entering the White Sea basin. Instances of ice margin readvance during deglaciation are also apparent, including a significant readvance of the White Sea lobe c. 14 ka. This study presents the first reconstruction grounded in high -resolution empirical data for the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland, and is presented in a time-slice format that is of critical importance for testing and validating numerical ice sheet and climate models.(c) 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Previous reconstructions of the glacial history of the last Fennoscandian Ice sheet (FIS) in northwest Arctic Russia are limited in scope owing to a lack of empirical geomorphological and chronological data. As a result, previous reconstructions suggest the Kola Peninsula was glaciated by either the FIS, the Ponoy Ice Cap, or the Kara Sea Ice Sheet. Utilising new databases of over 245,000 mapped glacial landforms and 209 numerical ages, we present a new time-slice reconstruction of Late Weichselian (c. 40-10 ka) FIS glaciation on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland. Subglacial bedforms are used to reconstruct ice flow geometry in the region. The relative age sequence of events demonstrates an evolving ice sheet configuration, including ice sheet build-up and retreat stages, and evidence of ice streaming. Moraines and meltwater landforms are used to reconstruct ice margin positions in the region. The Kola Interlobate Complex, stretching almost 400 km, is likely to be a time-transgressive landform assemblage, which formed at an east- and northeast-migrating junction between the warm-based White Sea lobe and cold-based ice on the Kola Peninsula, probably before the Last Glacial Maximum. Reconstructed retreat ice margin positions indicate that FIS retreat is characterised by thinning, resulting in a lobate ice margin. This new reconstruction provides a framework into which sedimentary and chronological reconstructions can be contrasted and compared. This research also provides crucial empirical data for validating numerical model simulations of the FIS, which in turn will further our understanding of ice sheet dynamics in other Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine regions.

Data-driven reconstructions of palaeo-ice sheets based on their landform records are required for validation and improvement of numerical ice sheet models. In turn, such models can be used to better predict the future responses of the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets to climate change. We are exploiting the recent expansion in availability and coverage of very-high-resolution (1–2 m) digital elevation models (DEMs) within the domain of the former Fennoscandian Ice Sheet to reconstruct its flow pattern evolution from the glacial landform record. The Fennoscandian Ice Sheet reached its maximum extent at 21–20 ka. Previous data-driven reconstructions over the whole ice sheet domain (encompassing Fennoscandia, northern continental Europe and western Russia) have necessarily relied upon landform mapping from relatively coarse-resolution (decametre-scale) data, predominantly from satellite images and aerial photographs. However, high-resolution (1–2 m/pixel resolution) LiDAR DEMs have recently become available over a large portion of the ice sheet domain above contemporary sea level. This reveals previously unobserved assemblages of landforms which record past ice sheet flow, including fine-scale cross-cutting and superposition relationships between landforms. These observations are likely to reveal previously unidentified complexity in the flow evolution of the ice sheet. However, the richness of the data available over such a large area amplifies labour-intensity challenges of data-driven whole-ice-sheet reconstructions; it is not possible to map every flow-related landform (or even a majority of the landforms) manually in a timely manner. We therefore present a new multi-scale sampling approach for systematic and comprehensive ice-sheet-scale mapping, which aims to overcome the data-richness challenge while maintaining rigor and providing informative data products for model-data comparisons. We present in-progress mapping products covering Finland, Norway and Sweden produced using our new multi-scale sampling approach. The products include mapping of >200 000 subglacial bedforms and bedform fields, and a summary map of ‘landform linkages’. Landform linkages summarise the detailed landform mapping but do not extrapolate over large distances between observed landforms. Thus, they provide a reduced data product that is useful for regional-scale flow reconstruction and model-data comparisons and remains closely tied to landform observations. The landform linkages will be reduced further into longer interpretative flowlines, which we will then use to generate ‘flowsets’ describing discrete ice flow patterns within the ice sheet. We will use cross-cutting relationships observed in the detailed landform mapping to ascribe a relative chronology to overlapping flowsets where relevant. We will then combine the flowsets into a new reconstruction of the flow pattern evolution of the ice sheet.

The Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland (Murmansk Oblast, northwest Arctic Russia) represents a major sector of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet (FIS) where empirical geomorphological, sedimentological, and chronological data are lacking and thus, where the pattern, style, and timing of glaciation is not well established. In this study, we present a critical review of published empirical data and interpretations of Late Weichselian (c. 40-10 ka) glaciation for the region. The review includes, for the first time, information published in Russian-language journal articles (n = 37), and is accompanied by a new Geographic Information System (GIS) numerical age database (spanning 472.3-6.2 ka) that collates known published numerical dates associated with the advance and retreat of the FIS in the study area. Our review suggests that an ice mass existed over the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland during the Early-Middle Weichselian (c. 115-40 ka), and likely retreated during the angstrom lesund interstadial (c. 38-34 ka). During the Late Weichselian, it is likely that the FIS advanced eastwards across Russian Lapland and the Kola Peninsula, establishing the White Sea Ice Stream before the local-Last Glacial Maximum (c. 19-15 ka). Through an evaluation of the existing Last Glacial-Interglacial Transition (c. 20-10 ka) glaciation models for the region, we propose that the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland was deglaciated by the FIS, rather than the Ponoy Ice Cap or the Kara Sea Ice Sheet. In collating, discussing, and critically evaluating empirical data and interpretations, this paper provides a valuable resource to inform FIS dynamics at both a regional-and ice sheet-scale, and offers a framework through which numerical ice sheet models can be constrained. Precise FIS dynamics on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland, including the position of the Younger Dryas ice marginal zone, remain unclear due to low-resolution geomorphological data. In concluding, we recommend that further work is needed in the form of a revised glacial reconstruction using high-resolution, peninsula-wide geomorphological data. (C) 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Previous attempts to reconstruct the glacial history of the last Fennoscandian Ice sheet (FIS) in northwest Arctic Russia have resulted in various Last Glacial-Interglacial Transition (c. 20-10 ka) scenarios, suggesting that the Kola Peninsula was glaciated by the FIS, the Ponoy Ice Cap, or the Kara Sea Ice Sheet. The conflicting glacial interpretations have stemmed, in part, from the use of low-resolution geomorphological and geological maps. The advent of high-resolution remotely-sensed imagery warrants a new glacial reconstruction of ice sheet dynamics in northwest Arctic Russia: we therefore present initial glacial interpretations based on new high-resolution geomorphological mapping.Geomorphological mapping using high-resolution ArcticDEM and PlanetScope imagery has identified >245,000 glacial landforms, significantly increasing the volume and detail of geomorphological data in the region. Over 66,000 subglacial bedforms (subglacial lineations and subglacial ribs) are used to construct flowsets, which demonstrate that ice flowed from the Scandinavian mountains in the west and across the shield terrain of the Kola Peninsula. Moreover, four possible palaeo-ice streams are identified in the region. Mapping individual moraine hummocks, rather than hummocky moraine spreads as in previous mapping attempts, reveals multiple ice margins across the Kola Peninsula. A noteworthy ~25 km wide belt of hummocky moraines aligned north-south across the Kola Peninsula is tentatively attributed to the Younger Dryas (c. 12.8-11.9 ka) ice marginal zone. The so-called “ring-and-ridge” hummock moraines that are predominantly observed within this ice marginal zone suggest down-wasting and stagnant ice margins. The meltwater landform record also reveals subglacial channel networks along the northern coastline that suggest warm-based conditions of the ice sheet may have been induced by warm currents in the Barents Sea during the last glacial-interglacial transition.This research will provide crucial empirical data for validating numerical model simulations of the FIS, which in turn will further our understanding of ice sheet dynamics in other Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine regions.

At present, there remains uncertainty surrounding the glacial history of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland, northwest Arctic Russia. This is attributed to the lack of high-resolution ice sheet-scale geomorphological data in the region. This paper presents 245,997 landforms in a new high-resolution, glacial geomorphological map of the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland. Individual landforms were mapped from relief-shaded renditions of the 2 m resolution ArcticDEM alongside 3 m resolution PlanetScope Ortho Scene data in a Geographic Information System (GIS). Digital mapping was accompanied by field mapping in selected areas. The map, which is presented at a scale of 1: 675,000, will form the basis of a palaeoglaciological reconstruction of northwest Arctic Russia that will inform ice sheet dynamics – at both a regional- and ice sheet-scale – and provide an important framework through which numerical ice sheet models can be constrained.

The glacial history of the Kola Peninsula, northwest Arctic Russia, during the Last Glacial-Interglacial Transition (LGIT; c. 18-10 ka) is poorly understood, with some researchers suggesting that the region was glaciated by the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet (FIS; e.g. Hughes et al., 2016), and others suggesting that it was glaciated by an independent Ponoy Ice Cap (e.g. Astakhov et al., 2016). Furthermore, it is unclear if and where there was a periodic ice standstill during the Younger Dryas (c. 12.9-11.7 ka) cold stadial. This is the largest sector of Fennoscandia where glaciation is poorly constrained, which stems from low resolution geomorphological mapping, a lack of sedimentary analyses, and limited dating of glacial landforms and deposits on the Kola Peninsula. Initial interpretations of geomorphological mapping and sedimentological analyses are presented. High resolution geomorphological mapping has, so far, demonstrated that the Kola Peninsula was glaciated by the FIS, which flowed from the Scandinavian mountains in the west and across the shield terrain of the Kola Peninsula, and not an independent Ponoy Ice Cap, as indicated by the west-east orientation of glacial lineations (e.g. drumlins, crag and tails, mega-scale glacial lineations), moraines, and meltwater channels. Up to four ice streams located in the western Kola Peninsula and the White Sea demonstrated in the glacial lineation record have also been identified. Furthermore, the Younger Dryas margin is proposed to be aligned north-south across the Kola Peninsula, flowing around the Khibiny Mountains, and forming an ice lobe in the White Sea, which is demonstrated by the moraine and meltwater landform assemblage. Moraines and lateral meltwater channels also suggest the Monche-tundra Mountains were exposed as nunataks, and that there were independent cirque and valley glaciers in the Lovozero and Khibiny Mountains at the periphery of the FIS during the Younger Dryas. In addition, glaciotectonised sediments identified in sedimentary analyses indicates the FIS underwent sustained readvances during retreat. This research will provide crucial empirical data for validating numerical model simulations of the FIS, which in turn will further our understanding of (de)glacial dynamics in other Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine regions. Astakhov, V., Shkatova, V., Zastrozhnov, A. and Chuyko, M. (2016). Glaciomorphological map of the Russian Federation. Quaternary International, 420, pp.4-14. Hughes, A.L., Gyllencreutz, R., Lohne, Ø.S., Mangerud, J. and Svendsen, J.I. (2016). The last Eurasian ice sheets - a chronological database and time-slice reconstruction, DATED-1. Boreas, 45(1), pp.1-45.