Northern Argentina hosts tropical and subtropical forests with a rich but still underexplored diversity of Agaricales fungi. In this study, we describe two new species of Stropharia found growing on decaying wood in native forests: Stropharia viridis, from the Cedrela forest within Baritú National Park (Salta, Andean Yungas), and Stropharia misionensis, from the San Antonio Strict Natural Reserve (Misiones, Alto Paraná Atlantic Forests). Phylogenetic analysis based on the nuclear internal transcribed spacer (nrITS) region and the large subunit (nrLSU) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA placed both species in well-supported clades within Stropharia, thereby confirming their placement as distinct taxa within the genus. Stropharia viridis is characterized by a dull green to grayish yellow, viscid pileus, sinuate lamellae, and thick-walled basidiospores; S. misionensis has a white pileus densely covered with brownish-red squamules, a membranous superior annulus, and subangular basidiospores < 10 μm long. Both taxa present smooth, and inamyloid basidiospores, and clamp connections in all tissues. Complete taxonomic descriptions, field photographs, line-drawings, photographs captured with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) of the basidiospores, and comparisons of similar and closely related species are provided. Additionally, UV fluorescence microscopy images reveal the presence of fluorescent cystidia in S. misionensis. Finally, since both species are restricted to decaying wood within native forests currently threatened by habitat loss, it is proposed that they should also be considered at risk.

It is estimated that there are between 2.2 and 3.8 million species of fungi, but only 3 to 8% are known. The order Agaricales in Argentina is not well known in certain areas and plant communities, as the Reserva Ecol & oacute;gica Costanera Sur (RECS), with a younger than 40 years Tessaria integrifolia Ruiz & Pav. riparian forest, characterized by a humid climate. The objective of this work was to document the diversity of Agaricales in the young forest of the RECS and analyze its diversity in relation to environmental characteristics. Sixteen rectangular plots were established and fungal species were collected monthly for one-year analyzing their macro-and microscopic structures. A total of 48 species belonging to 15 families were recorded with Inocybaceae J & uuml;lich, Pluteaceae Kotl. & Pouzar, and Psathyrellaceae Vilgalys, Moncalvo & Redhead being the most represented. Abundance, measured by the number of basidiomes, and dry weight, were 8 351 and 661.6 grams, respectively. The pH in the study plots was in general neutral and the light ranged from 101 to 48 056 lux. May exhibited the highest basidiome production and species richness. Three species were found for the first time in the area, which had previously been found in latitudes with a subtropical climate sev-eral years ago, potentially indicating climatic changes. Substrate type influenced the diversity, with wood being the preferred substrate for most species. This research contributes to the knowledge of Agaricales diversity in a young protected forest area and emphasizes their role in soil nutrient cycling and biodiversity maintenance.

The Argentine Northwest has a system of tropical and subtropical montane cloud forests on the Andes Mountains, where there is a significant diversity of Agaricales fungi yet to be discovered. Two new species from the Cedrela forest, inside the Baritú National Park, Argentina, are described in this work as Cercopemyces messii and Clitocybe cedrelae. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using the nuclear internal transcribed spacer (nrITS) region and the large subunit (nrLSU) of the nuclear ribosomal RNA. Complete taxonomic descriptions, field photographs, drawings, photographs captured with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) of the basidiospores, and comparisons of the similar and closely related species are provided. Both taxa have ornamented basidiospores that are hyaline, inamyloid, and clamp connections in all tissues. They were also found within the same area, and both presented a good number of specimens. These striking species should be considered in danger since their natural habitats are also at risk.

The aim of this work was studying the impact of co-cultivating two mushroom species: a white (Pleurotus albidus CLA 45) and a brown rot one (Laetiporus sulphureus BAFC 205) in substrates based on poplar or pine sawdust, on their lignocellulolytic enzyme production, yield values and basidiomes properties. Laetiporus sulphureus only developed basidiome primordia, but P. albidus monoculture and co-culture in pine sawdust achieved biological efficiencies of up to 50-55 %. Co-cultivation on diverse substrates rendered varied enzyme titers. Laccase and Manganese peroxidase titers were highest in pine co-culture and P. albidus poplar monoculture, respectively. Enzymatic extracts obtained from spent poplar substrate of dual cultures displayed potential for treating nonsterile textile-coloured effluents, achieving 35 % decolourisation after 120 h. The knowledge available on the effects of co-culture of white and brown rot fungi is still limited. This study represents an initial exploration of the interaction between them within intensive cultivation conditions.

Mushrooms containing amatoxins generate the highest number of fatal mycete poisonings on the planet. These toxins are produced not only by Amanita species, such as the well-known Amanita phalloides , but also by other genera, including Lepiota . In this work we report the treatment of a 51 -year -old male patient weighing 79 kg who was referred to the hospital after 36 h of ingesting mushrooms. The mushrooms were identified as Lepiota brunneoincarnata , found for the first time in Argentina. The patient presented general malaise, nausea and repeated vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Thanks to a quick anamnesis and early and accurate identification of the fungus, he was administered a nasogastric tube and serial activated charcoal. Additionally, N-acetylcysteine, phytomenadione and penicillin G EV were administered. The patient was discharged 11 days after admission. This case highlights the importance of obtaining a correct and sufficient anamnesis on fungi, enabling rapid analysis of them, and initiation of timely treatment for intoxication. Once again, the importance of having Toxicological Information and Advice Centers (CIAT) with experience and knowledge of micetisms is demonstrated.

Species are not equally detectable, and this should be considered at the moment of choosing ecological indicators and considering sampling efforts. Indexes that permit ranking gilled species according to their abundance, permanency and basidiomes features were constructed. The same indexes were used to evaluate sampling effort and efficiency: more than 2 hours of continuous work affects negatively the capability of finding less detectable species. Ranking species is a practical solution to organise abundance datasets, and can be easily applied to find patterns of species relevance and detectability to better understand our findings and even to ensure optimum field work efficiency.

Edible ectomycorrhizal mushroom-forming fungi (EEMF) are heterogeneously distributed in South America, with major occurrence of native and introduced species in temperate forest areas. This chapter focuses on EEMF from the Andean-Patagonian region, as well in natural ecosystems as in timber monocultures, including also recent progress in truffle culture. We gathered information about species diversity, cultural and economic importance, nutritional value, experience with cultivation, sustainable management, and conservation.

Leucocoprinus brunneosporus sp. nov., collected at the Santa Catalina Reserve (Buenos Aires, Argentina), is proposed as a new species. We performed separate phylogenetic analyses of the nuclear rDNA large subunit (28S) and the complete nuclear rDNA internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) to establish the placement of the new species in the phylogeny of the Agaricaceae. This new species has a macromorphology similar to that of Lc. birnbaumii, but the spore print is light brown. Detailed descriptions and illustrations of the macro- and microscopic characters are provided.

Background Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) are the natural enemies of insect pests. Nevertheless, research on the use of EPF for simultaneous prevention of pest and disease agents on the same crop is limited. In this study, we explored the potential dual effects of three strains of the EPF Metarhizium anisopliae on the control of detrimental agents of Vitis vinifera L., including different developmental stages (larvae, pupae, and adult) of the insect pest Lobesia botrana and the phytopathogenic fungus Eutypella microtheca . Methods Laboratory pathogenicity trials were performed to examine the effects of the three M. anisopliae strains on the mortality rate of L. botrana . In addition, field trials were conducted to assess the biocontrol potential of one selected M. anisopliae strain on the larval stage of L. botrana . Moreover, inhibitory effects of the three EPF strains on E. microtheca growth were examined in vitro. Results All the M. anisopliae strains were highly effective, killing all stages of L. botrana as well as inhibiting the growth of E. microtheca . The in vitro mortality of larvae treated with the strains was over 75%, whereas that of treated pupae and adults was over 85%. The three EPF strains showed similar efficacy against larvae and adult stages; nevertheless, pupal mortality was observed to be strain dependent. Mortality of L. botrana larvae ranged from 64 to 91% at field conditions. Inhibition of E. microtheca growth reached 50% in comparison to the control. Conclusions Our study showed that M. anisopliae strains were highly effective in ensuring control of two different detrimental agents of V. vinifera L., providing new evidence to support the dual effects of entomopathogenic fungi.

In the context of a bioprospection programme for tyrosinase/L-DOPA- and melanin-producing fungal strains for biotechnological purposes, a hyperproducer isolate was obtained from Las Yungas rainforest, a relevant biodiverse ecoregion in North-Western Argentina. The selected strain was preliminarily identified as Paraboeremia sp. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first native reported species of this genus in South America. Single-gene and multi-locus analyses of the internal transcribed spacer nuclear ribosomal RNA gene region (ITS), partial large subunit 28S nrDNA region (LSU), RNA polymerase II region (RPB2) and partial β-tubulin gene (TUB2) alignments were carried out to define the phylogenetic identity of this strain. As part of a polyphasic identification approach, these results were combined with morphological studies of active cultures growing on malt extract, oatmeal and potato dextrose agar plates. Incubation was performed under diverse conditions to stimulate sporulation for the subsequent micromorphological analysis. Microphotographs of pycnidia and conidia were taken with a scanning electron microscope. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian Inference analyses supported the location of the strain within the genus Paraboeremia, whilst morphological features allowed distinguishing it from previously described species within this genus. Based on the results herein reported, the new South-American species Paraboeremia yungensis is described and proposed.

Three new records of Agaricomycetes are cited for the first time for Argentina: Cruentomycena viscidocruenta, Collybiopsis luxurians and Collybiopsis subpruinosa. Complete descriptions and illustrations are provided in this work, and color photographs of the fresh samples were added. Comments were made about the taxonomy and ecology of the species presented.

Mycotaxon is pleased to add a new annotated species distribution list to our 136 previously posted free-access fungae. The 29-page "Checklist of Bolivian Agaricales. 2: Species with white or pale spore prints" by Melgarejo-Estrada, Rocabado, Suárez, Maillard, and Lechner may be downloaded from our website via http://www.mycotaxon.com/mycobiota/index.html

We provide a literature-based checklist of Agaricales reported from Bolivia. In this second contribution, 264 species belonging to 55 genera and 15 families (Agaricaceae, Clavariaceae, Cyphellaceae, Hygrophoraceae, Hymenogastraceae, Marasmiaceae, Mycenaceae, Omphalotaceae, Physalacriaceae, Pleurotaceae, Pterulaceae, Schizophyllaceae, Tricholomataceae, and Typhulaceae) are listed. Of these, Marasmiaceae, Omphalotaceae, and Hygrophoraceae were the most species-abundant families. Some new local distribution records are documented in this checklist. The lichens Cora and Dictyonema are also included in the present checklist.

Three new records of Agaricomycetes are cited for the first time for Argentina: Cortinarius casimiri var. hoffmannii, Lactarius hepaticus and Mycena margarita. Complete descriptions and illustrations are provided in this work, and color photographs of the fresh samples were added. Comments were made about the taxonomy and ecology of the species presented.

Resumen. Los cultivos de ajo y de maíz están ubicados en la Argentina en áreas similares destinadas a la producción de oliva, lo cual es una ventaja para la eliminación de desechos producidos por la extracción de aceites de oliva por medio de la producción de hongos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue investigar el uso de diferentes porcentajes de alpechín (OMWW) mezclados con desechos de ajo y maíz para la producción de basidiomas de Pleurotus ostreatus. La cepa BAFC 2067 de P. ostreatus fue cultivada en desechos de ajo y maíz mezclados con 15, 30, 45 y 60% de alpechín. Bolsas con 0% (control) y 100% de alpechín fueron también inoculados. El tiempo de colonización y las cosechas obtenidas permitieron concluir que el mejor sustrato utilizado para la producción de basidiomas fue la mezcla compuesta de alpechín y desechos de maíz. El efecto negativo para el crecimiento de Pleurotus ostreatus en ajo humedecido con agua destilada fue revertido cuando los desechos de ajo contenían 15 y 30 % de alpechín. Un efecto deletéreo sobre las cosechas fue observado cuando 60 % de alpechín fue utilizado para humedecer tanto el desecho de ajo como de maíz. Palabras clave: desechos agroindustriales, gírgolas, oliva, producción.

Three agaric species are cited for the first time for the Bolivian Yungas mycobiota: Agrocybe perfecta, Hygrocybe atrosquamosa and Mycena holoporphyra. These species are described, illustrated, and data on their distribution and ecology are provided.

The basidiomes production of two strains of Pleurotus ostreatus (one native from Patagonia, Argentina, isolated from the conifer Araucaria araucana and the other one a commercial strain) grown in different agricultural and forestry wastes was studied. The ability of the native strain generates interest to know its degradative capabilities for its use with conifer waste from the regional forest industry, which is dominated by the use of exotic Pinus species. In addition, white poplar (Populus alba), southern beech (Nothofagus pumilio), wheatgrass (Thinopyrum ponticum) and residues from beer brewing were also explored as substrates. The native strain showed better productivity of basidiomes with a biological efficiency of 17,86 % ± 3,74 % on pine wood shavings in comparison with the commercial strain used as control. The best substrates were poplar and wheatgrass with biological efficiency between 35,28 % to 88,5 % and 27,84 % to 84,01 %, respectively. Supplemented substrates showed better productivity than those without supplement. The low biological efficiency on pine could be attributed to the aromatic compounds contents because, in growth test, the diameter of the fungal colony was affected negatively by the addition of pine resin volatiles, mainly with α-limonene and δ-3-carene. In spite of the low biological efficiency, promising inter-breeding or hybrids generation could improve yields in future assays.

Mycotaxon is pleased to add a new annotated species distribution list to our 134 previously posted free access fungae. The 22-page "Checklist of Bolivian Agaricales. 1: Species with dark and pink spore prints." by E. Melgarejo-Estrada, M.E. Suárez, D. Rocabado, O. Maillard, and B.E. Lechner may be downloaded from our website via http://www.mycotaxon.com/mycobiota/index.html

Background: Pleurotus spp. are fungi characterized by their ability to biologically degrade lignocellulosic materials. In Argentina, 6 wild Pleurotus species are known, being P. pulmonarius and P. ostreatus the ones with the greatest biotechnological interest. Objective: To determine the phylogenetic relationships of Pleurotus strains from Patagonia and their enzymatic capacity (laccase) at low temperatures. Methods: A phylogenetic analysis of the ITS regions of 8 wild Pleurotus strains from Patagonia and Parana region in northeast and central Argentina was carried out. Laccase activity of the strains was quantified using dimethoxyphenol (DMP) as substrate, incubating at 30 and 10 ºC, with and without previous heat treatment at 80 ºC. Results and conclusions: Phylogenetic analysis of the ITS region of Pleurotus strains showed that Patagonian strains belong to P. ostreatus (5) and non-Patagonian strains to P. pulmonarius (3). Laccase activity was no relationship between the retention capacity and the origin of the strains, with more than 50 % retention of activity at 10 ºC, therefore it viable their use in biotechnological processes that require low temperature conditions.

Mushroom-forming fungi (Agaricomycetes) have the greatest morphological diversity and complexity of any group of fungi. They have radiated into most niches and fulfil diverse roles in the ecosystem, including wood decomposers, pathogens or mycorrhizal mutualists. Despite the importance of mushroom-forming fungi, large-scale patterns of their evolutionary history are poorly known, in part due to the lack of a comprehensive and dated molecular phylogeny. Here, using multigene and genome-based data, we assemble a 5,284-species phylogenetic tree and infer ages and broad patterns of speciation/extinction and morphological innovation in mushroom-forming fungi. Agaricomycetes started a rapid class-wide radiation in the Jurassic, coinciding with the spread of (sub)tropical coniferous forests and a warming climate. A possible mass extinction, several clade-specific adaptive radiations and morphological diversification of fruiting bodies followed during the Cretaceous and the Paleogene, convergently giving rise to the classic toadstool morphology, with a cap, stalk and gills (pileate-stipitate morphology). This morphology is associated with increased rates of lineage diversification, suggesting it represents a key innovation in the evolution of mushroom-forming fungi. The increase in mushroom diversity started during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic radiation event, an era of humid climate when terrestrial communities dominated by gymnosperms and reptiles were also expanding.