Persistence, release, and mobility of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from composted biosolids with vegetative waste were evaluated across multiple environmental matrices. Laboratory experiments were conducted to characterize PFAS release into water at pH 7.5 to simulate post-application conditions. Samples of biosolids-based fresh compost, two types of compost for turf use and agricultural uses, screen overs (larger particles separated from fresh compost), and fresh vegetative waste, as well as leachates collected after 24-hour mixing of these samples with deionized water, were analyzed for 40 PFAS following a modified U.S. EPA Method 1633 procedure. Partitioning of PFAS in the solid samples and in the leachate produced after 24 h was evaluated for the 15 predominant PFAS detected at the highest concentrations. Results showed strong matrix-dependent behavior, with long-chain PFAS exhibiting greater retention in solid matrices and short-chain PFAS preferentially mobilizing to the aqueous phase. Sulfonates showed higher affinity for the vegetative fraction than carboxylates. Screen overs were enriched in precursor compounds, suggesting preferential partitioning of precursors to the vegetative fraction during compost curing and screening. These findings indicate that composting alters PFAS partitioning by modifying organic matter composition, resulting in rapid release of short-chain PFAS and slower release of long-chain PFAS and precursors as the solid organic fraction decomposes. This dual-release behavior has important implications for groundwater transport and PFAS mobilization following land application of compost, and for assessing the environmental risks of biosolids-based composts.

Electronic waste (e-waste) is a growing solid waste stream with largely undisclosed and poorly characterized fluorinated constituents. We evaluated per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) leachability from four e-waste components (phone screens, phone plastics, capacitors, and Lithium-ion batteries) using a 30-day deionized water leaching test. PFAS were extracted by solid-phase extraction using weak anion exchange (WAX) cartridges and analyzed with a liquid chromatography triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer. In addition, the PFAS chemical profiles of e-waste components were characterized by non-targeted analysis. Leachable sums of detected PFAS (∑PFAS) were highest in phone screens (1739–1932 ng·kg−1) and phone plastics (1575–2197 ng·kg−1) and an order of magnitude lower in Lithium-ion batteries (148–158 ng·kg−1) and capacitors (147–243 ng·kg−1). Short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) (e.g., PFBA, PFHxA) and legacy acids (e.g., PFOA, PFNA) were more prevalent in phone screens/plastics, whereas capacitors and batteries showed mixed sulfonate/carboxylate patterns (PFOS, PFHxS, and 6:2 FTS). Although capacitors and Lithium-ion batteries contained essential PFAS with high hazard potential at trace levels, phone screens and phone plastics pose a greater risk per mass due to higher ∑PFAS levels and larger volumes. Non-targeted analysis using Orbitrap Astral revealed CF2/CF2O homologous trends (confidence levels 2–3) with corroborating targeted findings. These findings highlight the need for PFAS-free alternatives, the disclosure of fluorinated additives, and stronger end-of-life management strategies to prevent PFAS releases from e-waste.

Coastal communities in tropical and subtropical regions face increasing vulnerability to hazards due to population growth, fragile ecosystems, aging infrastructure, expansion of coastal and offshore facilities, and the critical role of coastal resources for economies. Multi-hazard vulnerability assessment examines how different hazards interact and their combined effects on populations, infrastructure, economies, and ecosystems. Cascading effects may occur within a single domain (e.g., environment) or across domains (e.g., water infrastructure and public health), creating complex challenges that amplify impacts. A simple methodology was developed for comparing and ranking multi-hazard impacts on critical coastal systems to improve preparedness, response, and recovery. The numerical framework integrates exposure, vulnerability, and hazard interaction intensification to support decision-making and resource allocation for resilience planning. The methodology was demonstrated in a Gulf of Mexico case study involving four hazard types (hurricane-related flooding, non-hurricane flooding, oil rig spills, and pipeline accidents) and three exposed systems (people, port services, and ecosystems). Vulnerabilities were assessed for both single- and multi-hazard scenarios to highlight compounding effects and inform planning. The framework was applied to compare impacts from Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Sandy, which involved different multi-hazard interactions (Katrina: hurricane, levee failure, oil spills; Sandy: post-tropical cyclone, storm surge). Impact scores were calculated across people, infrastructure, and ecosystems, aligning closely with observed disruption and damage. These results demonstrate the framework's utility in supporting knowledge-based decisions for resilience planning, prioritizing interventions, and addressing system-specific vulnerabilities in multi-hazard contexts.

Marine ecosystems are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic pollutants, including plastics, persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, oil, and emerging contaminants. This meta-analysis examined the accumulation patterns of five major contaminants-mercury (Hg), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), microplastics, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)-in relation to trophic level and lifespan across marine species. Data synthesis revealed distinct differences in bioaccumulation and biomagnification between legacy and emerging contaminants. Regression analyses indicated strong correlations between contaminant concentrations and trophic level for microplastics and PAHs across all trophic levels, and for PCBs up to trophic level 4.5. Lifespan significantly predicted the accumulation of PCBs, microplastics, and PAHs. In contrast, PFAS and mercury showed high variability, driven by species-specific metabolic processes, exposure pathways, and localized contaminant distributions. PFAS accumulation was particularly unpredictable due to the diversity of compounds grouped under PFAS and inconsistencies in reported datasets. These findings emphasize the influence of life history traits on contaminant bioaccumulation in marine species and highlight the ecological risks posed by persistent pollutants, which can affect multiple generations and disrupt ecosystem stability over time. To advance understanding, harmonized analytical protocols, comprehensive metadata standards, and open sharing of congener-resolved datasets are needed to enable robust cross-ecosystem comparisons and track long-term shifts in contaminant patterns in marine biota.

Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) occurs in environments where microbial attachment and biofilm formation occurs. The microbial metabolic activities which cause MIC affect materials in a wide variety of industries. Although MIC has not traditionally been a major durability concern for Florida coastal and inland bridges, a recent finding by the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) of severe corrosion of steel bridge piles with strong evidence of microbial activity, has motivated the present study. As a preliminary research, identify the possible susceptibility of a case study marine bridge infrastructure to MIC is the main objective. This will be supported by determining the bacteria, nutrient levels, environmental conditions and other factors that could support MIC. A site visit to a bridge was carried out in 2016 and water samples (close to the site) at varying depths, as well as underwater pictures of the bridge steel piles were taken. The chemical composition including pH, total organic nitrogen, nitrate, phosphate, sulfate, chloride, ammonia and microbiological content of the samples were determined. Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB), Slime Forming Bacteria (SFB), Iron Reducing Bacteria (IRB), and Acid Producing Bacteria (APB) were found in water samples. The presence of carbon, sulfate, nitrogen, phosphorus, as well as Ca, K, Na, Mg in water samples of the case study could provide the necessary nutrient to support large bacteria colonization. Site visit results (water chemistry and microorganism content) were compared with database information of water management districts of Florida, in order to find similar conditions that could support MIC. As a result, many sites with similar characteristics as the case study were found that may support MIC.

The aggregation behavior of oil droplets in three vegetable oil-water emulsions (olive, corn, and sunflower) was investigated at controlled temperatures (20 degrees C, 30 degrees C, and 40 degrees C) at neutral pH (pH 7). Emulsion destabilization was induced using a coagulant (Cat-Floc 2953), applied at the optimal dose determined by standard jar tests. Microscopic analyses were conducted to evaluate oil droplet size captured on flocs, floc size, droplet count per floc, amount of oil captured per floc, and fractal dimension of flocs. Statistical analyses of the image-derived data revealed significant correlations between temperature and aggregation parameters, including droplet and floc size distributions, as well as fractal dimension. Results indicate that oil capture efficiency was highest at lower temperatures across all oil types. Additionally, the number of droplets captured per floc decreased with increasing oil droplet size. A positive correlation was observed between floc size and both the number of captured droplets and the total amount of oil retained by the flocs. Fractal dimensions decreased with increasing temperature for olive oil and corn oil, indicating more open, less compact floc structures at higher temperatures. The flocs formed in sunflower oil emulsions did not exhibit a consistent trend for fractal dimension with temperature.

As urban populations grow, finding appropriate strategies for managing waste and stormwater is becoming increasingly more challenging. While the incorporation of waste materials into concrete has been studied for structural components, the use of waste materials in green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) is underexplored. Unlike load-bearing structural components, non-structural elements in GSI applications (e.g., stormwater planters, bioswales, curbs, infiltration trenches) do not need to meet conventional structural strength requirements and can be manufactured by incorporating alternative materials. This study investigates the feasibility of incorporating sawdust—a biodegradable, lightweight, and widely available waste byproduct—into concrete aggregates for non-load bearing GSI components such as bioswales, curbs, and infiltration trenches. Concrete samples were prepared by replacing sand with sawdust at 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 25 % by volume. To evaluate their suitability for GSI applications, the samples underwent compressive strength testing, water absorption analysis, and visual inspection of fracture behavior. The results showed that increasing sawdust content led to a reduction in compressive strength and unit weight, with the most significant strength loss observed at 25 % replacement. However, mixes with up to 15 % sawdust retained sufficient strength for non-structural use. Water absorption increased with sawdust content, with the 25 % mix absorbing over 3 % of its dry weight after 24 h, indicating enhanced porosity and moisture retention—desirable traits for GSI. Additionally, fracture patterns shifted from brittle to more ductile behavior as sawdust content increased. These findings indicate that sawdust-enhanced concrete offers a promising, sustainable alternative for GSI applications, contributing to waste reduction, resource efficiency, and improved stormwater management in urban environments.

Improper handling and disposal of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) containing PFAS can lead to the release of these substances into the environment. In this study, we have collected and characterized PFAS leaching profiles of selected e-waste components, including keyboards, cables, monitor screens, and circuit boards, and discussed potential PFAS exposure routes during e-waste disposal by landfilling and associated environmental and health risks. The e-waste components were disassembled, separated, sorted, shredded, and grounded, and leaching experiments were conducted for 30 days to elucidate the potential release and distribution of PFAS from the e-waste components into the environment. PFAS were extracted by solid phase extraction and analyzed through liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in e-waste leachate samples to investigate their occurrence and composition in the different e-waste components. The leachate from the e-waste components had 21 out of the 40 PFAS analyzed, in which the most predominant and abundant were perfluorobutanoic acid, perfluorohexanoic acid, perfluorooctanoic acid, and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid. The cables had the highest sum of PFAS in the leachate with concentrations up to 465 ng/kg. Mobilization of PFAS from e-waste components deposited in landfills through leachate requires proper management practices to protect the environment and public health.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic compounds that persist in the environment due to their metabolic degradation. Despite growing evidence of complex transport mechanisms, critical gaps remain in understanding membrane transport, tissue distribution, multimodal uptake pathways, and predictive models that fail to capture emerging PFAS or organ-specific kinetics. This review examines how the structure of PFAS drives persistence and facilitates membrane transport through noncovalent interactions and intrinsic molecular properties. Evidence from toxicokinetic studies and membrane biophysics indicates that amphiphilic PFAS disrupt lipid packing and utilize multiple uptake routes, including passive diffusion, carrier-mediated transport, endocytosis, and nanoparticle-assisted uptake. Transport kinetics and efficiency depend on organ-specific physiology, transporter expression profiles, and the lipid-protein composition of membranes, as well as on PFAS structure (e.g., chain length, headgroup chemistry, hydrophobic-hydrophilic balance). Transport efficiency depends on organ physiology, transporter expression, and membrane composition, as well as PFAS characteristics such as chain length and headgroup chemistry. Noncovalent interactions govern partitioning and retention in high-burden tissues such as liver, kidneys, brain, and placenta, with short-chain PFAS favoring passive diffusion and long-chain PFAS relying on carrier-mediated and endocytic pathways. Essential data gaps were addressed, and research needs were identified to advance mechanistic understanding and improve predictive modeling of PFAS behavior.

The waste transfer lines at the United States Department of Energy ' s Hanford Site Tank Farm in Benton County, Washington, USA have flexible sections that are fabricated from ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) hoses. The hoses are of a hose-in-hose design with an inner hose that carries the waste and an outer hose that acts as containment in the event of an inner hose failure. During waste transport, the inner hoses are exposed to several stressors including caustic solutions at high temperatures and high pressures. These hose-in-hose transfer lines (HIHTL) are exposed to several stressors including caustic solutions at high temperatures and high pressures during the waste transport. The aging behavior of the HIHTL inner hose were evaluated by exposure to solutions at 77 degrees C containing 6.25, 12.50, and 25.00% (v/v) sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for 12-months. After the exposure, the burst pressure of the HIHTL specimens were measured and compared to the unaged samples. The burst pressure of the HIHTL specimens exposed to the 6.25% NaOH solution exhibited the most significant deterioration and those exposed to 25.00% NaOH solution had the least deterioration. Examination of the inside surface of the HIHTL specimens with scanning electron microscopy showed that the surface deterioration for the specimens exposed to 6.25% NaOH solution were the most severe and the samples exposed to 25.00% NaOH solution had the least deterioration. Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEMEDS) analysis of the specimens showed that the specimen aged with the 6.25% NaOH solution had that greatest sodium ion penetration into the material with the sodium concentration being significantly higher than those seen with the other specimens. In addition, when the specimens aged with both the 12.50% and the 25.00% NaOH solutions were examined, a white crystalline coating was observed on the inside surfaces of the specimens which appears to have acted as a barrier that protected the EPDM material from attack by the NaOH solutions.

The recovery and reestablishment times of mangrove forests exposed to oil are highly dependent on the oil type and oil-related contaminant levels in water and sediments, spill magnitude, oil exposure duration and frequency, duration of the oil contamination remaining in water and sediments, and post-spill events and clean up actions. Estimating the adverse effects of oil exposure and recovery times of mangrove forests is often done by referencing other spills in different geographical regions or locations with different coastal and environmental characteristics. As a result, these projections may not provide reliable estimates for recovery times and the success of the recovery efforts. A systematic methodology is needed to categorize the prespill conditions and oil exposure vulnerability of mangrove forests. The objectives of this review are to: 1) emphasize the need for a systematic process to document the pre- and post-spill characteristics of mangrove forests, 2) identify key factors that influence the vulnerability of mangrove forests to oil exposure, 3) highlight the differences in mangrove forest characteristics and types of spilled oil to develop effective recovery strategies, 4) emphasize the importance of developing a recovery estimation tool to project the adverse effects of oil spills and recovery times, considering geographical features, mangrove characteristics, and the nature of the spilled oil, and 5) stress the necessity for using appropriate monitoring tools for systematically tracking the recovery of mangrove forests after exposure to oil.

Batch leaching experiments were conducted to evaluate the release of forty per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from sludge samples collected after thickening, anaerobic digestion, and dewatering processes at two wastewater treatment plants. The South District wastewater treatment plant (SDWWTP), which receives domestic wastewater and landfill leachate from a nearby landfill, and the Central District wastewater treatment plant (CDWWTP), which receives only domestic wastewater, were selected for this study. PFAS released into the aqueous phase were analyzed by sacrificial sampling after 1, 3, 7, 14, and 30 days. Results demonstrated rapid PFAS leaching, with the highest levels detected in biosolid leachates after just one day. Distinct differences were observed in PFAS composition and concentrations between the two treatment plants. Of the forty PFAS measured, nineteen were detected, with higher concentrations identified at SDWWTP. The input of landfill leachate to SDWWTP appears to have significantly contributed to the elevated levels of specific PFAS, particularly long-chain compounds, compared to the emerging short-chain PFAS found in biosolids. In addition to PFAS analysis, the compositions of the sludge samples, including total and volatile solids, protein, phosphorus (P), iron, aluminum, calcium, and magnesium, were also assessed. Spearman correlation analyses revealed moderate to strong relationships between PFAS levels in leachate and certain sludge components. For instance, correlations between P content and PFCAs and FTCAs were moderate (R2 = 0.45–0.76). In thickener sludge leachate, strong correlations were observed for FPrPA (3:3 FTCA), PFDA, and PFTrDA with P, with R2 values of 0.60, 0.53, and 0.54, respectively. In the digested sludge, correlations were found for PFHpA, PFDA, and PFNA (R2 = 0.45–0.76). Also, for digested sludge leachate, strong correlations were found between the individual compounds PFHpA, PFHxA, PFNA, PFOA, and PFPeA (R2 = 0.60–0.88). Predominant PFAS in leachate from biosolids were identified, including PFOS, FPePA (5:3 FTCA), PFPeA, PFBA, PFHxA, N-EtFOSAA, and 6–2 FTS.

The land application of biosolids as a management practice is considered a beneficial use for improving crop yield and reducing the need for other fertilizers. PFAS enter wastewater treatment plants through collection networks, including industrial discharges, the use of PFAS-containing products, and runoff. Therefore, PFAS may be present in biosolids derived from sewage sludge. The objectives of this study were to evaluate PFAS levels in biosolids samples collected at two wastewater treatment plants operated by the Miami Dade Water and Sewer Department (MDWASD): (1) the South District Wastewater Treatment Plant (SDWWTP) which received landfill leachate and (2) the Central District Wastewater Treatment Plant (CDWWTP). Sludge samples were collected after thickening, anaerobic digestion, and dewatering processes. The samples were subjected to batch leaching tests for 30 days. After the leaching tests, the PFAS levels in the liquid and solid fractions were analyzed for 40 PFAS. The findings show that during the aeration process (i.e., activated sludge process), PFAS are removed from the wastewater and accumulate on the solids. When the thickened sludge is digested, some PFAS are released to the liquid phase as the volatile solids decompose. During the dewatering process by centrifugation, PFAS that are partitioned to the liquid phase are removed, reducing PFAS content in the dewatered biosolids. Of the 40 PFAS analyzed, 24 were detected in leachate or solid residue samples. Samples from the SDWWTP had higher levels of PFAS due to the contribution from landfill leachate discharged to this facility. The partitioning of PFAS between the liquid phase and solid residue after 30 days of mixing indicates that the majority of PFAS in the biosolids are highly soluble and have a high tendency to be mobilized (by runoff, irrigation, precipitation) after land application. The fate profiles of PFAS biosolids were evaluated in terms of their solubility and retardation characteristics.

Land application of biosolids from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can potentially release per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) into the environment. Limited data is available on PFAS types and levels in biosolids from South Florida. This study outlines analytical protocols for detecting and quantifying PFAS in biosolid leachate and solid residue, by modifying and validating a method based on the U.S. EPA Method 1633. The method achieved detection limits as low as 0.02 ng/L in leachate and 0.01 ng/g in the biosolid residues and was applied to samples from two Miami-Dade WWTPs, in which 22 of 40 targeted PFAS were detected in leachates and 19 in solid residues after leaching. Distinct PFAS composition and levels were observed among the WWTPs, whereas the sum of PFAS (& sum;22PFAS) in leachates ranged from 57 to 463 ng/L, and in the solid residue & sum; 19 PFAS ranged from 187 to 571 ng/g. The 5:3 Fluorotelomer carboxylic acid (5:3 FTCA) was the most prevalent and abundant PFAS found, with a detection frequency between 83 % and 100 %. Key PFAS were prioritized based on their concentration and detection frequency. These findings highlight PFAS occurrence and distribution in biosolids at different treatment stages, underscoring the need for further monitoring and regulation.

Poly- and perfluoalkyl substances (PFAS) have been found in ocean water, sediments, and marine organisms. The objective of this study was to identify coastal and open water conditions that affect accumulation and transport characteristics of PFAS in coastal areas and open waters. Coastal conditions were compared based on the classification for Shoreline Cleanup and Assessment Technique (SCAT). Open sea conditions were evaluated in relation to ocean currents. PFAS data available in the literature from different coastal areas and open seas were compiled. Tidal flats, sheltered shores, salt and brackish marshes, bays and estuaries, mangroves, and areas with coral reefs, sea grasses, kelp have conditions that are favorable for PFAS accumulation and ecosystems in these environments are vulnerable to long term PFAS exposure and bioaccumulation. The areas near the centers of gyres in oceans trap and accumulate floating debris as well as PFAS contaminated particles. PFAS accumulation in highly productive coastal areas with mangrove forests, seagrasses and salt marshes can affect the ecosystems in these locations. PFAS data from marine environments indicate that some areas in the Indian Ocean (41.1 ng/L), North Pacific Ocean (12.8 ng/L), and North Atlantic Ocean (4.0 ng/L) relatively high levels of PFAS. Marine organisms with long life spans are likely to accumulate high levels of PFAS over their lifespan. PFAS concentrations at vulnerable coastal waters and open seas should be monitored systematically and periodically to establish the baseline conditions and evaluate the changes in PFAS levels water column and sediments overtime.

Climate stressors and their implications for stormwater management require evaluating climate-related threats and opportunities and implementing effective green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) systems to improve the resiliency and climate adaptation of communities, especially in urban areas. This study provides an evaluation of appropriate GSI systems that are aligned with specific climate conditions to analyze the relationship between climate types and the existing GSI practices; classify GSI implementation impediments; and identify appropriate GSI practices for different climate conditions. The existing GSI practices were critically analyzed as case studies in four different Köppen–Geiger climate regions, in view of their climate-specific GSI attributes. Our findings indicate that: (1) climate is an important factor in the design and implementation of GSI practices, and therefore, climate-specific factors need to be considered when designing effective GSI systems; (2) the implementation of climate-appropriate GSI practices can reduce climate-related stresses in communities; (3) utilizing combinations of different GSI systems improves their ability to function effectively across a wide range of climate conditions (i.e., climate events ranging from droughts to flooding); and (4) effective GSI practices can provide multiple benefits to communities (i.e., improved climate resiliency and adaptation to climate change, effective water and stormwater management practices).

Floating crude oil patches can separate from the main oil slicks depending on oil characteristics and sea conditions. The breaking tendency of smaller oil patches from the fresh crude oil slicks vary depending on oil type and thickness of the oil slick. Some oil slicks have high breaking tensions that can support significant weight. We investigated the breaking tension of fresh crude oil (South Louisiana crude oil (MC 252)) floating on water in relation to oil layer thickness. We observed that there is a critical thickness (CT) at which the floating oil exhibits significantly high breaking tension, and it becomes difficult for oil patches to break off. Below the CT, the floating oil layer was too thin and broke off easily. Above the CT, the oil layer was too thick, and external forces caused larger oil to stretch to form larger globules that broke off from the main floating oil until the oil layer thickness was reduced to CT. For the fresh crude oil tested, we estimate the maximum breaking tension as 0.23 & PLUSMN; 0.02 N/m and occurred at oil layer thickness of 0.16 mm. When the oil layer was thicker than the CT, the breaking tension was significantly lower (0.03 & PLUSMN; 0.02 N/m) and larger oil globules separated from the floating oil easily. These observations explain the conditions that lead to formation of highly stable oil patches at sea that can remain floating and travel long distances, some eventually depositing at beaches and in shallow waters as large oil patches.

Coupling of biogeochemical processes occurs between different waste components and waste layers during decomposition of wastes materials deposited in landfills by mechanisms similar to those occurring in marine sediments (i.e., sediment batteries). In landfills, moisture serves as a medium for transfer of electrons and protons under anaerobic conditions for decomposition reactions to proceed spontaneously, although some reactions occur very slowly. However, the role of moisture in landfills in view of pore sizes and pore size distributions, time dependent changes in pore volumes, heterogeneity of waste layers, and associated impacts on moisture retention and transport characteristics in landfills are not well understood. The moisture transport models developed for granular materials (e.g., soils) are not appropriate to describe the conditions at landfills due compressible and dynamic conditions in landfills. During waste decomposition processes, absorbed water and water of hydration can be transformed to free water and/or become mobilized as liquid or vapor, creating a medium for transfer of electrons and protons between waste components and waste layers. The characteristics of different municipal waste components were compiled and analyzed for pore size, surface energy, and moisture retention and penetration for electron-proton transfer for continuance of decomposition reactions in landfills over time. Categorization of pore sizes appropriate for waste components and a representative water retention curve for conditions in landfills were developed to clarify the terminology and highlight the differences between the landfill conditions and granular materials (e.g., soils) for use of appropriate terminologies. Water saturation profile and water mobility were analyzed by considering water as a transfer medium for carrying electrons and protons for sustaining long-term decomposition reactions.