To get further insights into the development of landscape elements and soils of North Sea barrier islands; an old part in the West (formed between approx. 1650-1860) and a young part, largely unaffected by anthropogenic influences in the East (formed approx. 1960), of the island Spiekeroog were comparatively analyzed. Between the two parts beach soils (World Reference Base of Soil Resources (WRB), IWG WRB (2015): Eutric Huvic Tiadalic and Eutric Endosalic Arenosols; German Soil Classification System (GSCS), AD-Hoc-AG BODEN (2005): Nassstrand and Strand) did not differ, except for microbial mats, which were found only in the East. In the West, a dune complex comprising white, gray and brown dunes holds a soil chronosequence from unaltered sands (WRB: Eutric Protic Arenosol; GSCS: Lockersyrosem) to braunified and podzolized soils (With: Dystric Brunk Arenosol; GSCS: Braunerde). However, in the East, only a single white dune chain, with adjacent shallow dune mounds to the south, had formed. In both parts, dune slacks evinced remarkably rapid peat formation (WRB: Dystric Histic and Eutric Histic Gleysols; GSCS: Niedermoorgleye). Here, iron content of groundwaters determined the formation of redoximorphic features. Soils of the salt marshes (WRB: Eutric Fluvic and Eutric Gleysols; GSCS: Rohmarschen) showed the highest contents of soil organic carbon (SOC) in the West, where the thickest fine sediment layers were also found. Revealed shortcomings of the German soil classification system concerning the classification of 'Strand' and 'Rohmarsch' soils are discussed. It is suggested to exclude the obligatory carbonate (CaCO3) content in the definition of the Strand soil and to introduce an additional horizon prefix to indicate carbonate contents between > 0 and < 2%, in order to classify Rohmarsch soils, with primary carbonate contents < 2%. Finally, an outlook on the future landscape -and soil development is provided, which is expected to be most profound in the young East.

The sustainable use of the soil resource requires extensive knowledge about its genesis, morphology, and properties. Consequently, soil data are basis for improved land use management and soil conservation. The present study illustrates morphology and physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the soils developed in the pediplain of Central Benin. The pediments are characterized by different substrate layers, whereas the material of valleys and the surroundings of inselbergs are of colluvial origin. Termites also play an important role in tropical soils by influencing soil properties. Movement of clay and sesquioxides are typical pedogenetic processes, resulting in the formation of horizons enriched with clay or of ferricrete. The soils of the study site are classified as Sols ferrugineux tropicaux lessivés, Sols hydromorphes, Sols minéraux bruts, and Sols bruns, according to the French Classification des Sols, as Alfisols, Inceptisols, or Entisols according to the U.S.D.A. Soil Taxonomy, or as Acrisols, Plinthosols, Gleysols, Fluvisols, Leptsols, and Cambisols according to the classification systems of the FAO-UNESCO legend and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources. The assessment of soil shows that the fertility of the pediment soils is generally low due to the low amount of organic matter, nutrients and poor water holding capacity of the sandy topsoil. The loamy soils surrounding the inselberg as well as the areas influenced by termites are more fertile because of a higher amount of nutrients and better water holding capacity.