Removal of biofilm is essential in food production environments, such as slaughterhouses and meat processing facilities, to prevent the persistence and spread of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms that compromise food safety. Thus, efficient cleaning and disinfection (C&D) are crucial. This study aimed to compare the efficacy of 15 commercial C&D treatments, including chemicals diluted at different concentrations of the concentrate, to reduce Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp. biofilm. Chlorinated alkaline, acidic, and enzymatic detergents alone or combined with chlorinated alkaline, acidic, electrochemically activated water (ECA), and alcohol disinfection were applied on pre-formed L. monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp. biofilms on woven conveyor belt material.The most efficient treatment was high concentration (6%) chlorinated alkaline cleaning combined with 70% alcohol (1.7 and 2.2 log reduction for L. monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp., respectively), followed by high concentration (6%) chlorinated alkaline cleaning and chlorinated alkaline disinfection (3%) (1.5 and 1.7 log reduction for L. monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp., respectively). The latter was superior to ECA combined with the same cleaning agent. For certain treatments, an increased concentration resulted in higher bacterial reduction, such as acidic C&D agents which improved reductions with 0.7-1.0 log. Biofilm removal was not enhanced when enzymatic cleaners replaced acidic or chlorinated alkaline cleaning agents.These findings indicate that, when applied at standard manufacturer concentrations, commonly used C&D agents are unable to remove biofilms of L. monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp. from conveyor belts. This emphasises the need for science-based guidelines to optimise C&D protocols in meat production facilities.

BACKGROUND:Urban broiler production is rapidly expanding in East Africa, raising public health concerns about zoonotic pathogens such as Campylobacter and the spread of antibiotic resistance. This study investigated the occurrence and phenotypic and genotypic antibiotic resistance of Campylobacter from broilers in urban and peri‑urban Uganda. METHODS:A total of 194 samples, including cloacal swabs (n = 157) and boot socks (n = 37), were collected from 28 randomly selected farms in three districts. Campylobacter was isolated according to ISO 10272-1 and tested for susceptibility to nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, streptomycin, and erythromycin by disk diffusion following European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing guidelines. Species identification and resistance genotypes were determined by whole-genome sequencing. Isolates that could not be re-cultivated were excluded from further analyses. RESULTS:Campylobacter was isolated from all 194 samples (100%). Of the 157 sequenced isolates, 54% (n = 84) were Campylobacter coli and 46% (n = 73) were Campylobacter jejuni. Of the 170 isolates tested for antibiotic susceptibility, 16% (n = 28) were resistant to all five antibiotics. No isolate was susceptible to ciprofloxacin. Multidrug resistance occurred in 61% (51/84) of C. coli and in 6% (4/72) of C. jejuni isolates. Strong concordance was observed between quinolone resistance and gyrA T86I mutation, tetracycline resistance and tet(O/32/O) or tet(O) genes, and in C. coli, streptomycin resistance and ant(6)-Ia gene. CONCLUSIONS:Broilers in urban and peri‑urban Uganda are frequently colonized with antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter, highlighting the need for strengthened biosecurity and antibiotic stewardship to mitigate public health risks.

Background Campylobacter spp. are significant contributors to global diarrheal disease and associated with severe infection in children in low- and middle-income countries. In Ethiopia, diarrheal diseases are often driven by poor sanitation, unsafe food and water, and close human–animal contact. Underreporting is common due to limited sampling, diagnostic capacity, surveillance, knowledge gaps of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and pathogen genomics. This study assessed the occurrence, genomic diversity, AMR and virulence profiles of Campylobacter spp. from diarrheic children and abattoir sources. Methods A cross-sectional investigation was conducted from November 2023 to September 2024 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A total of 660 samples were collected from slaughterhouses (n = 192), butcher shops (n = 84) and children at health center (n = 384) and analyzed according to ISO 10272-1:2017. Campylobacter spp. were confirmed using MALDI-TOF MS, tested for AMR by disc diffusion and further characterized by whole- genome sequencing. Results Campylobacter spp. were detected in 9.9% of pediatric stools and 6.3% of abattoir samples, with highest occurrence in cattle feces (14.6%) and carcasses (8.3%). Campylobacter jejuni predominated, while C. coli and C. fetus were detected only in children. Whole-genome analysis showed substantial genetic diversity, identifying eight sequence types (STs) belonging to seven clonal complexes (CCs). The most common were ST-460 and ST-1365, and CC-443 and CC-460. The occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in feces, carcasses and humans sharing similar STs showing small genetic difference indicates contamination during slaughter and suggests potential transmission to humans or exposure to same sources. Furthermore, two human C. jejuni isolates belonged to CC-21, a clonal complex considered a generalist lineage capable of colonizing and persisting across wide range of hosts. High AMR was observed for tetracycline (91.5%), ciprofloxacin (70.2%) and erythromycin (55.3%) with 74.5% of the isolates being multidrug resistant. Genomic analysis identified multiple AMR determinates and conserved virulent genes in C. jejuni , indicating strong resistance and pathogenic potential. Conclusion These findings show that genetically diverse and AMR Campylobacter circulates among human and abattoir sources in Ethiopia, with evidence of carcass contamination and potential transmission. This highlights the importance of strengthened hygiene practices, careful antimicrobial use and integrated One Health genomic surveillance.

Proper cleaning and disinfection (C&D) of broiler houses is essential to eliminate pathogenic bacteria and minimize the risk of transmitting harmful microorganisms to subsequent broiler flocks. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of various C&D methods, examine key factors influencing broiler house hygiene, and evaluate the impact of commonly used disinfectants. In the first part of the study, C&D procedures were evaluated. Eighteen broiler producers collected dip slide samples after disinfection from 20 control points within a broiler house over four production rotations, resulting in a total of 1,440 samples. The second part of the study assessed the effectiveness of four commonly used disinfectants on farms with broiler houses divided into four compartments, each cleaned under the same standardized protocol. Sampling was conducted by collecting 15 dip slides from each compartment both before and after disinfection over two production rounds at each farm, resulting in a total of 720 samples. Despite the large sample size, only a few factors significantly impacted the results. Pre-soaking surfaces with water before cleaning, combined with the use of detergents, were two improving factors. Additionally, fogging and high-pressure washing were also effective in reducing bacterial loads. To maximize bacterial reduction, disinfectants should be evenly applied across all surfaces. Neither the age nor the size of the houses showed a significant correlation with bacterial counts. When comparing the effectiveness of different disinfectants under identical cleaning routines and broiler house conditions, no significant differences were found between the substances. However, variations were observed among the different broiler producers, with one farm showing a greater bacterial reduction, with a reduction above 400 CFU at more control points compared to the other farms suggesting that overall farm hygiene plays a crucial role. Ultimately, effective C&D does not depend on the disinfectant but, rather, on the combined influence of all C&D variables, most importantly, on the diligence and technique of the person responsible for the process.

AIMS:To determine the Salmonella serotype distribution, antimicrobial resistance profiles, and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) in food samples obtained from local markets in a low-income urban setting and nearby farms in Cambodia. METHODS AND RESULTS:One hundred and thirty-nine Salmonella isolates from various food sources were tested for antibiotic susceptibility using a panel of 12 antibiotics, and 81 selected Salmonella isolates were further sequenced for serotype distribution and ARG identification. The results showed that 71% (99/139) of the isolates exhibited resistance to at least one antibiotic, with 39% (39/99) classified as multidrug-resistant (MDR). The highest resistance was observed against azithromycin (37%), followed by oxytetracycline (35%). A total of 32 serotypes were identified, with the six most common being S. Corvallis (7%), S. Haifa (6%), S. Weltevreden (6%), S. Agona (5%), S. Kentucky (5%), and S. Livingstone (5%). A broad range of ARGs was observed across multiple antibiotic classes, including macrolides, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, phenicols, fluoroquinolones, sulfonamide-trimethoprim, beta-lactams, and MDR genes. CONCLUSIONS:The results highlight the potential role of fresh food products in the widespread dissemination of Salmonella strains resistant to multiple antibiotics.

Background/Objectives: Antimicrobial use (AMU) in livestock drives antimicrobial resistance (AMR). AMR has a significant impact on public health. While several interventions have been used to address this challenge, few have utilized Information and Communication Technology (ICT) approaches. The objective of this study was to pilot and assess an ICT system to monitor the use of veterinary drugs and disseminate information to farmers in peri-urban smallholder poultry systems in Kenya. Methods: The system was developed in collaboration with the stakeholders. It captures drug sales in veterinary pharmacies and disease incidence and treatments reported by farmers. The system was piloted from May 2023 to December 2023. Monthly follow-ups were conducted to monitor progress and address problems. Assessment was performed through focus group discussions with the users (two with farmers and two with veterinary pharmacy staff) and descriptive statistics of the data collected by the system. Results: A total of 15,725 records were obtained from veterinary pharmacies, including antibiotics (57%), dewormers (22%), and vitamins (11%). Requests for a specific product were recorded in 38% of the sales, while 63% were accompanied by some evidence (empty drug containers, old packages, old prescriptions, pictures of sick birds, and actual sick birds). A total of 91 records were obtained from the farmers. The health problems reported were mostly respiratory (40%) and digestive (30%) disorders. The percentage of customers who requested advice on animal health when visiting veterinary pharmacies ranged from 5 to 20%. Conclusions: AMU can be improved in the study area. The piloted system may help policymakers monitor the sales and usage of antibiotics, improve animal health management, and promote responsible AMU.

Objective and reliable post-mortem meat inspection is a key factor in ensuring adequate assessment and quality control of meat intended for human consumption. Early identification of issues that may impact public health and animal health and welfare, such as the presence of chemical contaminants in meat, is critical. In this study, we propose a novel method to modernize meat inspection using an electronic nose combined with machine learning (ML), with focus on pig meat as a case study. We explored its potential as a complementary tool to traditional sensory evaluation and analytical methods, aiming to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of current inspections. We employed a metal-oxide based gas sensor array of commercially available chemoresistive sensors, functioning as an electronic nose, to differentiate between various categories of 100 pig meat samples collected at a slaughterhouse based on their odor characteristics, including a urine-like smell and post-mortem aging. Using the Optimizable Ensemble model, we achieved a sensitivity of 96.5

BackgroundCampylobacter is a leading foodborne pathogen posing a significant One Health challenge due to broad animal reservoirs and serious antibiotic resistance. Despite frequent human-animal-environment interactions in Ethiopia, One Health studies on Campylobacter occurrence and transmission are crucial but lacking.Methodology/principal findingsA cross-sectional study was conducted from March 2021 to March 2022 in central Ethiopia using a One Health approach to assess Campylobacter occurrence and resistance in humans, poultry and environment, and identify risk factors in humans and poultry. A total of 366 samples from 122 poultry farms were collected, including cloacal swabs, human stools, and poultry house floor samples. Epidemiological data on risk factors and respondents' awareness were gathered through interviews. Campylobacter spp. were isolated following ISO 10272, confirmed with multiplex PCR and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility using the disc diffusion method according EUCAST guidelines. Campylobacter spp. were detected in 12.5% samples, highest in poultry (19.6%), followed by humans (13.1%) and poultry house floor (4.9%). Campylobacter jejuni was the dominant species (80.4%), followed by C. coli (19.6%). In poultry, mixed farming with cattle increased Campylobacter colonization odds (adjusted odds ratio; AOR = 9.5), while all-in/all-out management decreased it (AOR = 8.4). In humans, Campylobacter infection was linked to raw milk consumption (AOR = 5.5), poultry access to living areas (AOR = 6.3), not using personal protective equipment when working with poultry (AOR = 8.3) and not washing hands after handling poultry and cleaning barn (AOR = 5.6). Farm workers had a knowledge gap in zoonotic risks, including Campylobacter and One Health. High antibiotic resistance was observed, especially to erythromycin (63.0%), ciprofloxacin (69.5%), tetracycline (89.1%), and oxytetracycline (73.9%), with 69.5% of isolates showing multidrug resistance.Conclusions/significanceThe study revealed widespread occurrence of resistant Campylobacter spp. in poultry, workers, and the environment, highlighting the need for One Health interventions: improved biosecurity, hygiene, education, and responsible antimicrobial use to safeguard animal and human health.

BACKGROUND:Cleaning and disinfection (C&D) in slaughterhouses and meat processing facilities is essential to avoid cross-contamination of the meat and thereby prevent food-borne illness and decreased shelf-life of the food product. To determine C&D efficacy, environmental monitoring should be performed. The food business operator must decide which activities to apply in their facility, which can be a challenging task. Ten slaughterhouses, six red meat and four poultry, with associated meat processing facilities participated in this interview study. The animals slaughtered in these slaughterhouses represented approximately 32% and 90% of the annual slaughter in Sweden, respectively. Quality assurance managers of the slaughterhouses were asked 27 questions using digital interviews about their C&D procedures and environmental monitoring. Additionally, the managers could freely elaborate on the difficulties and challenges related to C&D. RESULTS:Daily C&D was performed in all slaughterhouses and nine hired external cleaning companies. The same type of chemicals were used in all ten slaughterhouses, which primarily included alkaline detergents with or without chlorine for cleaning and chlorine-based agents for disinfection. The most common methods used for monitoring C&D efficacy were the sampling of surfaces by dipslides and ATP-bioluminescence, while one slaughterhouse used swabbing. Only half of the slaughterhouses based thresholds to determine if a surface was sufficiently clean on their own risk-analysis. The remaining slaughterhouses did not provide the information, or the respondent did not know. Quality assurance managers expressed difficulties in determining C&D efficacy, identified several surfaces as difficult to clean and noted reliance on externally provided hygiene thresholds. Four thematic challenges emerged in the thematic analysis: microbial composition on surfaces; efficacy of C&D procedures; competence and management; and production and competitiveness. CONCLUSIONS:Slaughterhouses face notable challenges in C&D, and environmental monitoring, including procedural deficiencies, knowledge gaps, and limited science-based guidelines. Hygiene outcomes are strongly influenced by personnel competence and management support. Limited collaboration between slaughterhouses further impedes the sharing of effective practices. Strengthened partnerships with the scientific community, improved training, risk-based monitoring, and hygienic facility design are essential to enhance C&D standards and reduce microbial contamination risks at slaughterhouses and meat processing facilities.

Background/Objectives: Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and antimicrobial use (AMU) is needed to understand risks and implement policies. Collecting AMU data in the context of disease prevalence and therapeutic outcomes has been suggested for improving AMU. We describe the process of developing an information and communication technology (ICT) system to monitor AMU, diseases and treatment outcomes in poultry in East Africa. Methods: A prototype system to register drug sales in veterinary pharmacies, a mobile application for farmers to report their AMU, and a database for monitoring was developed. Contact information for participating veterinarians was included as well as information about poultry diseases, husbandry, AMR and prudent use of antibiotics. The system was pilot-tested for a 6-month period in Kenya. Results: A total of 15,725 records were submitted by the 14 participating pharmacies and 91 records were entered by the 15 participating farmers. Overall, the participants were positive about the system and were able to use it. The information available was appreciated by the farmers. The pharmacy representatives appreciated getting an overview of their sales and stated that it had given them new insights. Conclusions: Despite some challenges, the concept of the developed ICT system could be useful for future monitoring of animal health and the use of pharmaceuticals in animals, and connecting farmers with veterinarians to improve animal health management. Our results underline the importance of close collaboration with stakeholders so that developed tools can be transferred to national ownership after the finalization of externally funded projects.

Foodborne diseases are a major cause of illness in low- and middle-income countries, and most are due to fresh foods sold in traditional markets. Contamination with foodborne pathogens, especially Salmonella spp., continues to be common in these markets. To better understand why this is the case, this study assessed total bacteria count (TBC) and Salmonella in pork across Vietnamese traditional markets and evaluated vendors' food safety knowledge, attitudes, and practices, examining their associations with contamination. Data was collected in 68 markets across five provinces, with up to 10 pork vendors per market randomly selected. Microbiological data were collected through cut pork samples and cutting boards swabs (n = 396), along with structured questionnaires and observations with vendors (n = 486). Cutting board swabs were analyzed for TBC only, while cut pork was tested for both TBC and Salmonella. Linear and generalized linear mixed-effects models were constructed to identify risk factors for TBC and Salmonella prevalence. The overall Salmonella prevalence in cut pork was 64.4 % (255/396) and was significantly higher in southern provinces (86.8 %) compared to the north (47.5 %, p < 0.01). TBC was high in pork and cutting boards (6.4 log10CFU/g and 6.9 log10CFU/cm2, respectively), and only 30 % of the pork samples met the Vietnamese standard for TBC in fresh meat. Selling of organs was associated with a higher TBC (coefficient = 0.13, CI: 0.01-0.26, p = 0.03) and greater Salmonella risk (OR = 2.04, p = 0.009). Temperature significantly increased both outcomes (p < 0.001), while using easy-to-clean surfaces reduced TBC levels (coefficient = -0.16, CI: -0.30 to -0.01, p = 0.03). Vendors demonstrated limited food safety knowledge and mixed attitudes. Observations revealed poor hygienic practices, such as displaying pork on cardboard or cloth or lack of washing with soap and disinfectants, which was influenced by limited access to facilities and equipment. Regional differences suggested contamination levels were influenced by both environmental and market-related factors. These findings highlight the need for holistic interventions targeting an enabling environment, appropriate equipment, and behavioral incentives.

To prevent foodborne illness, adequate cleaning and disinfection (C&D) is essential to remove pathogenic bacteria from the slaughter environment. The aim of this study was to determine the presence of Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli (ESBL E. coli) before and after C&D in slaughterhouses. Samples from food- and non-food contact surfaces taken before and after C&D in one red meat and one poultry slaughterhouse were analyzed for the target bacteria. Whole-genome sequencing and antimicrobial susceptibility testing were performed. In total, 484 samples were analyzed. Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 13.0% to 15.5% of samples before C&D in the red meat and poultry slaughterhouse, respectively. Listeria monocytogenes was isolated before C&D in 12.5% and 5.2% of samples in the red meat and poultry slaughterhouse, respectively. It was noted that C. jejuni was detected on multiple surfaces and that L. monocytogenes showed potential persistence in one slaughterhouse. After C&D, L. monocytogenes was found in one sample. ESBL E. coli was not detected either before or after C&D. These findings show the possibility to remove pathogenic bacteria from slaughter and meat processing facilities, but also indicate that deficiencies in slaughter hygiene pose a risk of cross-contamination of meat.

Campylobacteriosis is one of the most commonly reported foodborne diseases and is of particular importance in low-income countries. More data is needed to better understand the epidemiology of Campylobacter spp. in food sold at informal markets, where most people in low-income countries buy their food. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of Campylobacter spp. among broiler chicken carcasses sold at informal urban markets in Uganda and to gain more knowledge about hygienic handling practices and awareness of foodborne bacterial diseases among the market vendors. In total, 120 broiler chicken carcasses from 30 different markets were analysed using ISO 10272 and confirmed by PCR. AMR analyses were performed using the disc diffusion test. Epidemiological data on food safety practices and awareness was collected from the vendors using a questionnaire. Campylobacter spp. was isolated from 66% (79/120) of the carcasses; 32% were C. jejuni, 14% were C. coli and 54% comprised of a mixture of both species. All C. jejuni isolates showed resistance to tetracycline, 88% to ciprofloxacin and 28% to erythromycin. Of the C. coli isolates, 82% showed resistance to tetracycline, 73% to erythromycin and the quinolones ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid. More than half of the vendors had heard about food-borne illnesses, but none knew about Campylobacter spp., and the knowledge regarding hygienic practices was low. These data calls for urgent interventions to improve food safety, protect the public from foodborne illness, and prevent the spreading of AMR.

Domesticated and farmed animals that are slaughtered commercially for human consumption undergo antemortem inspections (AMIs) by official veterinarians to comply with the legislation of the European Union. Small-capacity abattoirs and game-handling establishments are often located in remote areas and have high resource demand for onsite control. This study aimed to study the feasibility of remote AMIs performed by veterinarian raters with limited prior experience in AMI and to evaluate the user experiences assessed by raters having lifelong experience with digital devices in their daily lives. The present study was performed over 4 d (18 sessions) at a large-capacity abattoir slaughtering pigs and another 4 d (four sessions) at a small-capacity abattoir slaughtering cattle and sheep. The interrater variability between two raters (one technical support person conducting onsite AMI and one remote rater conducting remote AMI over a live video feed) was assessed, and the raters scored their user experiences for each session. A total of 4,032 pigs, 39 cattle, and 10 sheep were inspected over the 22 sessions. We observed high levels of overall agreement (99.4%), Cohen’s kappa (0.920; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.888–0.953), and prevalence- and bias-adjusted kappa (0.989; 95% CI: 0.983–0.993) between the onsite and remote AMIs for the large-capacity abattoir. These results were also supported by the McNemar test (χ2 = 0.375; df = 1; p = 0.54). The sample size at the small-capacity abattoir was low (N = 49), and marginal rating frequencies were different, for which the Fisher’s exact test showed statistical differences (p < 0.001) between the onsite and remote AMI results. The average user experience scores for all categories were rated as satisfactory or better. Consequently, remote AMI is a feasible and flexible option for official meat inspections in slaughter, provided the inspectors are trained and aligned in their assessments of AMI findings.

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a One Health issue and a major threat to animal and human health. Antibiotic use (ABU) drives AMR development, and several hotspots for ABU, and AMR, in livestock have been identified in Southeast Asia, including Vietnam. There are often multiple drivers of ABU at farms, and to identify all of them there is a need to look beyond farm level. Objectives: The overall aim of this study was to identify routines and/or competencies, related to antibiotic sales, among veterinary drug shop workers that may be improved in order to decrease the medically non-rational use of antibiotics in livestock production. Methods: A questionnaire-based survey was conducted at 50 veterinary drug shops in northern Vietnam. Results: Results showed high education and knowledge levels. According to the respondents, antibiotic treatment advice was almost always provided to the farmers, and the recommended treatment was most commonly based on recommendations for the specific disease. However, farmers had almost never had their animals properly diagnosed. Antibiotics were the most sold drug category, penicillins being the most common. Several broad-spectrum antibiotics were also quite frequently sold. Further, >50% of respondents recommended antibiotics for disease prevention. Conclusions: Even though education and knowledge levels might be high, several challenges can prevent drug shop workers from contributing to more prudent ABU at farms, for example, lack of proper diagnosis, commercial interests and individual farmer motives, often in combination with poor compliance to regulations.

IntroductionAntimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a threat to animal and human health, as well as food security and nutrition. Development of AMR is accelerated by over- and misuse of antimicrobials as seen in many livestock systems, including poultry production. In Vietnam, high AMR levels have been reported previously within poultry production, a sector which is dominated by small-scale farming, even though it is intensifying. This study focuses on understanding small- and medium-scale chicken farmers’ knowledge and practices related to AMR by applying an item response theory (IRT) approach, which has several advantages over simpler statistical methods.MethodsFarmers representing 305 farms in Thai Nguyen province were interviewed from November 2021 to January 2022, using a structured questionnaire. Results generated with IRT were used in regression models to find associations between farm characteristics, and knowledge and practice levels.ResultsDescriptive results showed that almost all farmers could buy veterinary drugs without prescription in the local community, that only one third of the farmers received veterinary professional advice or services, and that the majority of farmers gave antibiotics as a disease preventive measure. Regression analysis showed that multiple farm characteristics were significantly associated to farmers’ knowledge and practice scores.ConclusionThe study highlights the complexity when tailoring interventions to move towards more medically rational antibiotic use at farms in a setting with high access to over-the-counter veterinary drugs and low access to veterinary services, since many on-farm factors relevant for the specific context need to be considered.

AbstractControlling foodborne pathogens in buffalo milk is crucial for ensuring food safety. This study estimated the prevalence of nine target genes representing seven critical foodborne bacteria in milk and milk products, and identified factors associated with their presence in buffalo milk chain nodes in Bangladesh. One hundred and forty-three milk samples from bulk tank milk (n = 34), middlemen (n = 37), milk collection centers (n = 37), and milk product shops (n = 35) were collected and analyzed using RT-PCR. Escherichia (E.) coli, represented through yccT genes, was the most prevalent throughout the milk chain (81–97%). Chi-squared tests were performed to identify the potential risk factors associated with the presence of foodborne bacteria encoded for different genes. At the middleman level, the prevalence of E. coli was associated with the Mymensingh, Noakhali, and Bhola districts (P = 0.01). The prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes, represented through inlA genes, and Yersinia (Y.) enterocolitica, represented through yst genes, were the highest at the farm level (65–79%). The prevalence of both bacteria in bulk milk was associated with the Noakhali and Bhola districts (P < 0.05). The prevalence of Y. enterocolitica in bulk milk was also associated with late autumn and spring (P = 0.01) and was higher in buffalo-cow mixed milk than in pure buffalo milk at the milk collection center level (P < 0.01). The gene stx2 encoding for Shiga toxin-producing (STEC) E. coli was detected in 74% of the milk products. At the middleman level, the prevalence of STEC E. coli was associated with the use of cloths or tissues when drying milk containers (P = 0.01). Salmonella enterica, represented through the presence of invA gene, was most commonly detected (14%) at the milk collection center. The use of plastic milk containers was associated with a higher prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus, represented through htrA genes, at milk product shops (P < 0.05). These results suggest that raw milk consumers in Bangladesh are at risk if they purchase and consume unpasteurized milk.

Salmonella is a major bacterial concern for public health globally. Although there are limited documentation on the prevalence of Salmonella species in Cambodia’s food chain, some reports indicate that salmonellosis is a severe gastrointestinal infection in its population and especially in children. To investigate the presence of Salmonella spp., 285 food samples (75 meat, 50 seafood, and 160 leafy green vegetable samples) were randomly collected from various local markets in Phnom Penh capital and nearby farms in Cambodia. Concurrently, field observations were conducted to collect data on food hygiene and practices among the relevant actors. All food samples were analyzed using bacterial culture and plate counts, and the findings were confirmed serially with biochemical, serological, and PCR tests. The observational data on food hygiene and practices from farm to market revealed that the spread of Salmonella in the food-value chain from farm to market could pose health risks to consumers. The overall prevalence of Salmonella spp. was 48.4% (138/285), while the prevalence in meat, seafood, and vegetables was 71% (53/75), 64% (32/50), and 33% (53/160), respectively. Mean Salmonella plate count ranged from 1.2 to 7.40 log10 CFU/g, and there was no significant difference in bacterial counts between meat, seafood, and vegetable samples (p > 0.05). The most common serogroups among the isolated Salmonella spp. were B and C. These results suggest that a large proportion of meat, seafood, and vegetable products sold at local markets in Phnom Penh are contaminated with Salmonella spp. This is likely linked to inadequate hygiene and sanitation practices, including handling, storage, and preservation conditions. Observations on farms suggested that the prevalence of Salmonella in vegetables sold at the market could be linked to contamination relating to agricultural practices. Thus, controlling the spread of foodborne salmonellosis through the food-value chain from farms and retailers to consumers is warranted to enhance food safety in Cambodia.

Consumers are responsible for a large proportion of food waste, and food that has reached its use-by or best-before date is often discarded, even if edible. In this study on fresh chicken, the suitability of use-by dates currently used in the EU was evaluated by using microbial and sensory analyses. This was carried out by analyzing bacterial populations of chicken breast fillets (M. pectoralis major) at three different time points (use-by date, 2 days past use-by date, 4 days past use-by date) and two different storage temperatures (4 °C, 8 °C). A discrimination triangle test was performed to check for sensory differences between chicken breast fillets cooked at the three selected time points for both storage temperatures. A consumer preference test was also performed for chicken breast fillets that had been stored at the highest recommended temperature (4 °C) and after being cooked at the three time points. Changes in populations of total aerobic count (TAC), Enterobacteriaceae (EB), and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were recorded over time. Despite large differences in bacterial counts at the selected time points, with TAC populations of approximately 6.5 and 8.0 log CFU/g at use-by date and four days after use-by date, respectively, storage for two or four extra days had no significant effect on the sensory parameters of cooked chicken compared with chicken consumed at its use-by date. Since the TAC populations were close to or above levels that are associated with spoilage, more work is needed to explore if shelf life can be extended.