Although invasive alien species have long been recognized as a major threat to nature and people, until now there has been no comprehensive global review of the status, trends, drivers, impacts, management and governance challenges of biological invasions. The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Thematic Assessment Report on Invasive Alien Species and Their Control (hereafter 'IPBES invasive alien species assessment') drew on more than 13,000 scientific publications and reports in 15 languages as well as Indigenous and local knowledge on all taxa, ecosystems and regions across the globe. Therefore, it provides unequivocal evidence of the major and growing threat of invasive alien species alongside ambitious but realistic approaches to manage biological invasions. The extent of the threat and impacts has been recognized by the 143 member states of IPBES who approved the summary for policymakers of this assessment. Here, the authors of the IPBES assessment outline the main findings of the IPBES invasive alien species assessment and highlight the urgency to act now.

Abstract The chapter reviews gender inequality and how it plays into the economy of Zambia. Literature review results suggest that patriarchal gender norms have limited women’s participation in productive activities. The chapter notes strides made in achieving gender parity in the attainment of primary and secondary education but argues that more needs to be done to extend this achievement to tertiary education. Despite aspirations expressed in national policies and development plans, very slow progress has been towards empowering women to participate in productive activities and in achieving gender equality in this arena. The chapter contends that attempts to empower women have not been bold enough to transform entrenched gender norms and address the related gender inequalities. In order to increase gender equitable outcomes, development activities by both state and nonstate actors ought to explicitly aspire for gender transformative outcomes and not simply brush over the sources of inequalities. This would require long-term commitments to programmes that address gender gaps, including investments in educational, market, and transport infrastructure in rural and peri-urban areas.

This chapter provides an exposition of Zambia’s rural economy during the colonial and post-independence period. It occasionally delves into the decade before the colonial period to explain developments during the colonial period. A two-phased post-independence era comprising a state-led rural economy landscape from 1964 to 1990 and a market-driven neoliberal phase from 1991 to 2000 is described in detail. The chapter explores trends in the socio-economic aspects of Zambia’s rural environment. Actors and drivers in the Zambian rural economy are identified and discussed in terms of their respective roles and associated effects. Additionally, the chapter narrates the overarching policy frameworks and rural development approaches used from 1924 to 2021 with the respective outcomes such as food security. Special reference is made to the main pillars of the rural economy: the contribution of forestry, agriculture, fisheries, and wildlife resources. Furthermore, the chapter elucidates on rural developments in terms of challenges and opportunities before raising a conclusion.

This study investigated how land rights formalization had affected land tenure security among landowners in two informal settlements of Lusaka and Chongwe districts, Zambia. It explored how social norms on land inheritance, decision making over land, marital trust and land related conflicts had been affected by the changed nature of land rights. Data was collected through a questionnaire survey of all the 302 households that had obtained title deeds at the time of the survey, two 3-in-1 focus group discussions and four key informant interviews. Results suggest that land tenure security is now a reality for residents that hitherto lived under constant threat of eviction. Landowners have benefitted from the formalization initiative through land laws and local norms that allow equitable access to land. Land rights formalization has curtailed land rights for secondary claimants such as extended family members, in preference for man, spouse and biological children. A sense of ownership undisputedly increased for men and women in the two study sites. About 50% of the respondents in both study sites indicated that formalization of land rights had not resulted in family conflicts. At least one-third from both sites reported an increase in love and trust between spouses after land rights formalization. About half of the respondents reported that no change in decision-making authority had occurred for men while 42% reported an increase. Formalizing land rights in informal settlements has entailed legalizing illegalities as regulations on plot boundaries are set aside by the state to achieve its aspirations of providing land tenure security to poor urbanites who would not otherwise have recourse to legal or regularized land. We recommend that caution be taken in promoting what is unarguably a pro-poor initiative to ensure that such initiatives should not incentivize future land encroachments.

This study investigates land investments and credit access resulting from a land rights formalization initiative in the Lusaka city region, Zambia, through 302 household interviews, key informant interviews, satellite image analysis and focus group discussions. Results reveal that no more than 27% of respondents in Bauleni and 15% in Madido had mortgaged their houses to formal institutions despite a perceived increase in house values due to the legitimization of property ownership. There was no marked increase in access to formal credit but local informal saving and credit associations, with only 30% having accessed credit. The reported and observed increase in immovable land investments such as house structure expansions, fencing of property and renovations by respondents (78% in Madido and 65% in Bauleni) was attributed to the availability of finances and not land rights formalization per se. The importance of socio-economic and local cultural norms in accruing benefits from property ownership is underplayed by land rights formalization proponents. Therefore, while land tenure reforms remain necessary, they are not sufficient conditions for the urban poor to realize the espoused benefits of formalization - induced capital formation.

The urban poor in cities of developing countries tend to be the most affected by climate change. This is because of the intersection of their socio-economic characteristics and the hazardous bio-physical environments they inhabit, which usually have limited social services. This study, conducted through interviews with 320 residents of Bauleni and Misisi residential areas of Lusaka, applied the concept of intersectionality to investigate climate risk and social vulnerabilities in informal settlements of Lusaka. The study was based on both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data was analysed using the two-sample proportions Z test and descriptive statistics with the aid of Minitab 17 statistical package, while qualitative data was analysed using thematic analysis with the aid of a qualitative data analysis software called QDA miner. The respondents identified floods, diseases and crime as the major social and climatic risks. Apart from flooding and crime, the risks were not perceived to affect the value of housing in the study sites. This was due to a lack of affordable housing alternatives for the urban poor. The social and climatic risks had differentiated effects on women, men and children. Housing property owners and tenants continue to reside in the risky environments because of the lower cost of land, low cost of living and proximity to the city’s central business district. The study recommends that policy measures aimed at improving informal settlements residents’ well-being should be directed at improving their ability to adjust to and recover from impacts of the climatic disasters and reducing social vulnerabilities.

This study reports on the outcomes of customary land certification, which comprised formalisation of customary land rights in three chiefdoms in Zambia. Social learning labs, encompassing sharing, learning and reflection phases were at the core of data collection from villagers, traditional leaders and government officials. Results indicate that customary land certification reduced customary land markets and land conflicts, enhanced land tenure security and transparency in customary land administration but reduced communal natural resources management in the study sites. Access to financial credit was indirectly increased, as certification provided customary landowners with proof of residence, a requirement for bank loans. Villagers became emboldened to assert their land rights post certification. The study argues that customary land tenure systems should not be assumed to encapsulate insecure land tenure a priori but customary land certification processes may induce tenure insecurity when they include conditions that present financial costs to land rights claimants and threaten loss of land rights.

This study explored legume production by female and men smallholder farmers in Chipata, in a changing climate context. The study objectives were to (i) find out how men and women smallholder legume farmers in Chipata understand climate variability, (ii) investigate how climate variability affects smallholder legume farmers and (iii) identify the different challenges faced by womenfemale and men legume farmers in Chipata. Interviews were conducted with 86 male and 86 female legume farmers selected using stratified random sampling. Purposive sampling was used to select nine key informants and focus group discussants. Qualitative data were analysed using content analysis, while quantitative data were analysed through statistical tests. About half the men and women perceived that climate change in Chipata manifested through a shorter rainy season, late start of rainy season, intra-seasonal droughts and heavy downpours. Some men (34.9%) and women (23.3%) reported that heavy downpours caused common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) flowers to drop off. About 41% of the men farmers interviewed and 23.3% of the women reported witch weed (Striga asiaticapa) on their groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea) fields after periods of heavy rainfall. The men discussants complained that soya bean (Glycine max) fields became waterlogged after prolonged heavy rains, which delayed weeding. Women farmers had challenges accessing hybrid legume seed, inoculants and marketing legumes. Men’s challenges were low market prices for soya beans. The study recommends agricultural interventions should focus on climate-smart legume seed multiplication and certification among legume farmers and promotion of local seed-sharing networks to enhance seed diversity.

Despite increased global energy supply, many households have insufficient access to energy in developing countries. Power utility companies, mostly parastatals, fail to cope with the burgeoning energy demand. This results in load shedding and impacts strongly associated with people's socio-economic classification. With poorer residential areas disproportionately adversely affected, socio-spatial segregation across urban space is evident. Using the socio-spatial segregation framework, this study employed convergent parallel mixed methods to examine effects of load shedding on households in Kitwe. Research objectives were to (1) investigate how household SMEs were affected by load shedding (2) find out dominant energy mixes in the economically differentiated residential areas (3) establish if there are any theoretical implications of the effects of load shedding on the residential area categorisation. A questionnaire was administered to 510 low, middle and high-income residential area households. Data were analysed using content analysis, descriptive and inferential statistics. Results reveal similar socio-economic effects across all groups except household income for middle and high-income areas. Small businesses experienced reduced profits with increased business costs especially for high-income areas. In conclusion, socio-spatial segregation created little difference in social and economic impacts at household level implying reducing inequalities due to increasing informal sector activities.

The study examined the outcomes of participatory fisheries management in Mweru- Luapula fishery in northern Zambia. The main objectives were to: evaluate the performance of Village Fisheries Management Committees (VFMCs), analyze participation of fishers in management activities and to assess fishers' compliance to fisheries regulations. Data were collected through structured interviews with 64 respondents, five focus group discussions and two key semi-structured interviews. Ostrom's eight design principles and White's typology of Interests was employed to analyze VFMCs performance and fisher participation respectively. Descriptive statistics and content analysis were employed to analyze the quantitative and qualitative data respectively. Results show that inadequate financial support to the Department of Fisheries has culminated in the capture of benefits by VFMC positions by local elites, and ultimately weakened enforcement of fisheries regulation. A nominal form of participation characterizes the co-management as resource users are not engaged in decision making and power still resides with the Department of Fisheries. Low compliance to the seasonal fish ban by fishers due to inconsistent patrols by VFMCs and Department of Fisheries has resulted in persistence of illegal fishing practices that threaten conservation of fish in the fishery. The minor positive outcomes of co-management suggest its ineffectiveness in curbing illegal fishing activities. A common property regime where smaller groups of fishers exploit a portion of the fishery with locally designed operational rules is therefore recommended to replace the 'consultative' type of co-management prevailing in Mweru- Luapula fishery.

This study explored the use of conservation agriculture (CA) as a climate adaptation strategy among smallholder farmers in Eastern Zambia. Using 761 household interviews and 33 focus group discussions (FGDs) with smallholder farmers from six districts, data was collected on how smallholder farmers in the region experience climate change, what CA practices they had adopted, and benefits and challenges associated with CA practice. Results show that men and women farmers had similar experiences of climate change, namely late onset of a shortened rainy season, intra-seasonal drought and higher temperatures. Farmers' perceptions of gender-mediated effects of climate change had important nuances. The three most cited effects of climate change on women mentioned by women were lower crop yields, outbreaks of armyworms and reduced livestock fodder. The men thought women were most affected by increased hunger, lower crop yields and reduced domestic water sources. According to the women FGDs, men were most affected through reduced crop yields, increases in livestock diseases and increased hunger. The men self-reported reduced crop yields, reduced water for livestock and outbreaks of armyworms. Both men and women saw CA as having climate change adaptation benefits. For the women, men most benefitted from CA through the high moisture holding capacity of basins, higher crop yields and reduced labor requirements through use of oxen ripping. The men most appreciated the high crop yields, improved soil fertility and reduced costs as less fertilizer is used. The women cited the high moisture holding capacity of basins, high crop yields and improved soil fertility as benefits they most commonly derived from CA, while the men thought the women most benefitted from CA through the higher crop yields, improved soil fertility and crop tolerance to droughts. The study concludes that there is room for CA to serve as a climate smart agricultural system for both men and women smallholder farmers in Eastern Zambia. However, this will require addressing important challenges of high weed pressure, high labor demands, and low access to manure, and CA farming implements. The CA package for Zambia should include access to timely climate information and climate informed crop choices.

Zambia’s Lands Act of 1996 provides for the conversion of land rights from customary to leasehold tenure by both Zambian citizens and non-Zambians. This study reports on land conversion processes engaged by rural men and women of Chongwe and Chibombo districts in central Zambia. Data was collected through 85 structured interviews with male and female residents in the two study areas and several key informants. Results show that 75% and 58% of the men and women interviewed had obtained customary land from their village head persons, and 31% and 42% had engaged in land conversion processes. Land conversions have resulted in increased employment opportunities for men; and tenure security for unmarried and widowed women. Ambivalence towards the loss of power by chiefs over subjects with titled land and paying property taxes to the state was evident in both men and women residents in the midst of more secure land tenure rights for their families. Retaining traditional leaders’ authority in the land conversion process perpetuates discriminatory practices against women and privileges village head persons and men while disadvantaging women. Land conversions are engendering changes in matrilineal inheritance patterns more favourable to landowners’ children.

A survey11The survey instrument is available as supplementary content in the research publication by Kaluma and Umar (2021) [1] was conducted with 64 respondents to examine the outcomes of participatory fisheries management in Mweru-Luapula fishery, northern Zambia [1]. The survey was complemented by five focus group discussions (FGDs) and two key informant interviews. The study evaluated the performance of Village Fisheries Management Committees (VFMCs), analysed participation of fishers in management activities and assessed fishers’ compliance to fisheries regulations. Ostrom's Eight Design Principles and White's Typology of Interests were employed in the analysis of VFMC Performance and Fishers’ participation respectively [2], [3]. Descriptive statistics and content analysis were employed to analyse the quantitative and qualitative data respectively. Results show inadequate funding to the Department of Fisheries; capture of benefits and VFMC positions by local elites and weak enforcement of fisheries regulations. A nominal form of participation characterizes the co- management system and resource users are not engaged in decision- making. Besides inconsistent patrols by VFMCs and Department of Fisheries, results further show low compliance to the seasonal fish ban and persistent use of illegal fishing practices within the fishery.

This study assessed the effects of conservation agriculture (CA) practices on soil fertility of smallholder farmers’ agricultural fields in Chafukuma, North Western Zambia. A total of 34 paired soil samples from adjacent agricultural fields in which CA and conventional agriculture (CV) had been practiced for at least five years were analysed for significant differences in plant available phosphorus (P), exchangeable potassium (K), total nitrogen (N), soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil reaction (pH). Smallholder farmers’ CA practices and their perceptions of CA’s effects on soil fertility were investigated through 34 semi structured interviews. Secondary data on CA was collected through desk analysis of CA publications. The study found evidence of CA associated improvements in soil fertility (Tcalc= 4.520, p < 0.0001). This improvement was attributed to the consistent use of good agronomic practices in CA fields whereas these practices were mostly absent from CV fields. The study concludes that CA improved soil fertility in agricultural fields of smallholder farmers in Chafukuma, and could be promoted in CA systems in other high rainfall areas of Zambia provided all the important agronomic practices are utilized consistently. Most of the CA associated agronomic practices could also be extended to CV fields successfully.

This study utilised 158 semi structured interviews, three focus group discussions and two key informant interviews to achieve its aim of investigating environmental discounting by smallholder farmers in Chibombo, Zambia. Results suggest that most smallholder farmers were willing to continue using mineral fertilisers in the short to medium term even when they were told there could be potentially negative effects as a result. This result was attributed to the farmers' experience with neutralising soil acidity through lime application and crop rotations. The proportions of smallholder farmers who would continue using pesticides increased with the period it takes for pesticide induced soil infertility to manifest. The respondents seemed more concerned about effects on the soil that would manifest in five years. Smallholder farmers preferred soil improving practices with short term benefits, and low risk. The proportions of smallholder farmers willing to plant fertiliser trees reduced from 68.5 % when the benefits accrue in five years to about 38 % when said benefits accrue to the next generation. Study recommends that agricultural development interventions should focus on low risk, locally available technologies with shorter term benefits and minimal future costs. Study recommends that agricultural development interventions include innovation of practices with shorter term benefits, minimal future costs and farmer sensitisation on the benefits of sustainable agriculture.

Conservation agriculture (CA) identified by the practice of minimum soil disturbance, diversified crop rotations, and maintenance of organic soil cover reinforces ecosystems services through a number of interrelated pathways. The production of food in CA reinforces the provision ecosystem services. The regulatory services such as carbon sequestration, climate regulation, and control of soil erosion are reinforced through minimum tillage and inclusion of trees in CA. Support services through nutrient recycling, soil formation habitat provision derived from crop rotation, minimum soil disturbance, and plant residue retention. Despite some challenges associated with CA, when done correctly, CA could ensure current food security and nutrition for all without compromising the economic, social, and environmental bases for future generations.

A survey was conducted with 235 randomly selected households to investigate women's empowerment, land and donor-driven agricultural interventions in Eastern Zambia [1] for aid programmes with (Norwegian) and without (Chinese) women empowerment goals. The survey was complemented by six focus group discussions (FGDs) and 12 key informant interviews. A triple-stream approach for focus discussions was used (i.e. women-only, men-only, and mixed gender). The results suggest that despite differing aid programme modalities, there was increased access to, and control over, productive resources by women farmers. At least 60% of the respondents reported joint ownership of all types of livestock and poultry, including large livestock such as cattle. Within households, decisions on cotton, groundnuts, and maize were made jointly by the husband and wife. Greater than 70% of the respondents in both Norwegian and Chinese aided households reported joint decision making by the husband and wife. Although both men and women farmers attended training sessions, the percentage of attending respondents was lower for Chinese-aid affiliated farmers. The majority (81% - Norwegian aid; 89% – Chinese aid) jointly earned and owned the income from cotton. When women entered into contract farming with the cotton company, operations management was performed by the entire household, and the applicable income was considered jointly earned.

This study examines views on economic benefits, local participation in wildlife management and conservation ethic among 267 residents of three chiefdoms in Mambwe district, Eastern Zambia. Results show that 68% of the residents who live in the Lupande Game Management Area are not in any way involved in community wildlife management. For those involved, the main reason advanced for participating was economic benefit (79%). Only a small minority of 17% of the residents participated due to motivations to conserve wildlife. Human-wildlife conflicts induced by wild animal crop raiding, property destruction, and loss of human life, and perceived low or non-existent economic benefits seemingly precluded the development of a conservation ethic among residents. The local chiefs asserted wildlife ownership, lamented low wildlife benefits and justified its illegal uptake. Proponents of community conservation projects could encourage pro conservation attitudes among residents by addressing human-wildlife conflicts and raising awareness on intrinsic values of wildlife.

Zambia has in the recent past witnessed an increase in economic activities which has led to an increased energy demand. This increased demand for energy has overshot the hydroelectric power generating capacity. Consequently, the national power utility company, the Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation (ZESCO) instituted nationwide load shedding schedules that last up to 12 hours daily. This development has potentially far reaching social and economic effects on the lives and operations of poor urban residents and small scale business enterprises (SMEs) that routinely depend on stable access to electricity. With a focus on two low income residential areas, namely Ng’ombe and Kalingalinga residential areas, this study explored how residents and SMEs of the capital city, Lusaka have been affected by the recent spate of load shedding in the city. A total of 200 households and 14 SMEs from Ng’ombe and Kalingalinga were interviewed. Results show that load shedding, which occurs daily in the two study sites has caused massive disruptions to the daily lives and operations of the households and small businesses respectively. Over time, the load shedding phenomena has gotten worse and become a major political issue, reflecting the hardships for households and businesses in Zambia. On this basis, this study recommends that the government provides subsidies on alternative energy appliances such as portable diesel solar generators for small business enterprises and more favourable electric tariff rates for business that shift their manufacturing activities to night time so as to reduce demand for electricity during peak periods.

This study examined the environmental and social effects of large‐scale mining in Chingola, Zambia. Data was collected through semi‐structured interviews with 164 residents living close to Zambia's largest open pit mine, key informants and desk analysis of secondary data. Quantitative data was analysed using the chi‐square test, one sample T‐test and two sample Z‐proportions test, while qualitative data was analysed using content analysis. Results show that the residents reported being most affected by sulphur dioxide air emissions and noise pollution due to the proximity of the copper smelter and heavy moving machinery to their residences. The residents received domestic water containing rust and copper ore particles from the water utility company which draws raw water from the mine. Although the mine was a source of employment for locals, over 4,000 jobs (representing a 33% decrease) have been lost over a period of 4 years, negatively affecting the local economy. Mine management attributed the job losses to high production costs and mechanization of mining processes. The residents perceived the job losses to have led to crime, alcohol abuse and prostitution among youths as well as a general increase in poverty levels. Analysis of air emissions data from the mine found elevated levels of dust, cadmium, copper and lead pollutants. Key informants from Nchanga Mine reported implementing bioremediation to reduce soil contamination by the heavy metals and recycling SO2 to produce sulphuric acid. The study recommends an increase in social corporate responsibility from the mine management to ensure residents derive more substantive benefits from their proximity to the mine.