Most bat species are highly social and utilize a variety of calls to communicate with each other including distress calls that may warn other bats of potential threats. The function of these calls in different species varies and could include eliciting help or acting as a warning signal to stay away. In this study, Cuban fruit-eating bats, Brachyphylla nana, were captured from La Barca Cave in Guanahacabibes National Park, Cuba and distress calls were recorded to examine call structure and variability among different bats. We used Avisoft SASlab pro to analyze 14 different spectral and temporal characteristics of the calls and utilized factor analysis to reduce the dimensionality in the data set and assess variability in call structure. The recorded calls and a pink noise control were used in a playback experiment inside the cave to analyze how bats respond to distress calls. An infrared video camera and ultrasonic microphone were used during the playback to determine if there were any changes in bat behavior, such as an increase in calls observed, bats flying by the speaker, or bats leaving the area. Our results suggest that call structure is variable with limited evidence that call characteristics are unique to specific individuals. Our playbacks suggest that these calls serve a social function in that the number of bats approaching the speaker increased during distress call playbacks relative to the control. Future work will include building on these results to further explore Brachyphylla nana social behavior including anti-predatory behavior and social communication.

Exceptionally long-lived species, including many bats, rarely show overt signs of aging, making it difficult to determine why species differ in lifespan. Here, we use DNA methylation (DNAm) profiles from 712 known-age bats, representing 26 species, to identify epigenetic changes associated with age and longevity. We demonstrate that DNAm accurately predicts chronological age. Across species, longevity is negatively associated with the rate of DNAm change at age-associated sites. Furthermore, analysis of several bat genomes reveals that hypermethylated age- and longevity-associated sites are disproportionately located in promoter regions of key transcription factors (TF) and enriched for histone and chromatin features associated with transcriptional regulation. Predicted TF binding site motifs and enrichment analyses indicate that age-related methylation change is influenced by developmental processes, while longevity-related DNAm change is associated with innate immunity or tumorigenesis genes, suggesting that bat longevity results from augmented immune response and cancer suppression. ### Competing Interest Statement SH is a founder of the non-profit Epigenetic Clock Development Foundation which plans to license several patents from his employer UC Regents. These patents list SH as inventor. The other authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Exceptionally long-lived species, including many bats, rarely show overt signs of aging, making it difficult to determine why species differ in lifespan. Here, we use DNA methylation (DNAm) profiles from 712 known-age bats, representing 26 species, to identify epigenetic changes associated with age and longevity. We demonstrate that DNAm accurately predicts chronological age. Across species, longevity is negatively associated with the rate of DNAm change at age-associated sites. Furthermore, analysis of several bat genomes reveals that hypermethylated age- and longevity-associated sites are disproportionately located in promoter regions of key transcription factors (TF) and enriched for histone and chromatin features associated with transcriptional regulation. Predicted TF binding site motifs and enrichment analyses indicate that age-related methylation change is influenced by developmental processes, while longevity-related DNAm change is associated with innate immunity or tumorigenesis genes, suggesting that bat longevity results from augmented immune response and cancer suppression.

We tested the effectiveness of Faculty Institutes for Reforming Science Teaching IV (FIRST), a professional development program for postdoctoral scholars, by conducting a study of program alumni. Faculty professional development programs are critical components of efforts to improve teaching and learning in the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) disciplines, but reliable evidence of the sustained impacts of these programs is lacking. We used a paired design in which we matched a FIRST alumnus employed in a tenure-track position with a non-FIRST faculty member at the same institution. The members of a pair taught courses that were of similar size and level. To determine whether teaching practices of FIRST participants were more learner-centered than those of non-FIRST faculty, we compared faculty perceptions of their teaching strategies, perceptions of environmental factors that influence teaching, and actual teaching practice. Non-FIRST and FIRST faculty reported similar perceptions of their teaching strategies and teaching environment. FIRST faculty reported using active learning and interactive engagement in lecture sessions more frequently compared with non-FIRST faculty. Ratings from external reviewers also documented that FIRST faculty taught class sessions that were learner-centered, contrasting with the teacher-centered class sessions of most non-FIRST faculty. Despite marked differences in teaching practice, FIRST and non-FIRST participants used assessments that targeted lower-level cognitive skills. Our study demonstrated the effectiveness of the FIRST program and the empirical utility of comparison groups, where groups are well matched and controlled for contextual variables (for example, departments), for evaluating the effectiveness of professional development for subsequent teaching practices.

The availability of reliable evidence for teaching practices after professional development is limited across science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines, making the identification of professional development “best practices” and effective models for change difficult. We aimed to determine the extent to which postdoctoral fellows (i.e., future biology faculty) believed in and implemented evidence-based pedagogies after completion of a 2-yr professional development program, Faculty Institutes for Reforming Science Teaching (FIRST IV). Postdocs (PDs) attended a 2-yr training program during which they completed self-report assessments of their beliefs about teaching and gains in pedagogical knowledge and experience, and they provided copies of class assessments and video recordings of their teaching. The PDs reported greater use of learner-centered compared with teacher-centered strategies. These data were consistent with the results of expert reviews of teaching videos. The majority of PDs (86%) received video ratings that documented active engagement of students and implementation of learner-centered classrooms. Despite practice of higher-level cognition in class sessions, the items used by the PDs on their assessments of learning focused on lower-level cognitive skills. We attributed the high success of the FIRST IV program to our focus on inexperienced teachers, an iterative process of teaching practice and reflection, and development of and teaching a full course.

In long-lived temperate bats, female philopatry can influence the genetic structure of roosting groups and the potential for individuals to interact across generations. Although direct observation of dispersal between social groups is difficult given the vagility and nocturnal activity of most bats, molecular markers can be used to infer dispersal and mating patterns. Here we report on female philopatry among pallid bats, Antrozous pallidus, a species that exhibits dynamic fission—fusion roosting behavior in which philopatry and familiarity with a roosting area may help individuals choose roost sites and gain benefits associated with social roosting. In addition, we use genetic data to draw inferences about how dispersal and mating relate to the presence of divergent mitochondrial clades, which have been previously reported for pallid bats in western North America. We found significant genetic structure among colonies in central Oregon based on sequence variation at the mitochondrial (mt) DNA control region (pairwise ФФST = 0.08–0.678), but very little structure among colonies for bi-parentally inherited nuclear microsatellites (pairwise FST = 0.004–0.01) indicative of female philopatry and male-mediated gene flow. Interestingly, some bats captured in the same colony had mtDNA haplotypes that differed by more than 12% yet failed to exhibit differences at nuclear markers. Thus, even though such divergence values are sometimes associated with species differences, evidence indicates that bats from these clades freely interbreed. This unusual pattern seems likely to be the result of postglacial range expansions from separate southern refugia northwards followed by recent secondary contact.

BACKGROUND: Bat pups produce individually distinct isolation calls to facilitate maternal recognition. Increasing evidence suggests that, in group-living bat species, adults often use similar calls to maintain contact. We investigated if isolated adults from all three species of the highly cooperative vampire bats (Phyllostomidae: Desmodontinae) would produce vocally distinct contact calls when physically isolated. METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We assessed variation in contact calls recorded from isolated captive and wild-caught adult common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus), white-winged vampire bats (Diaemus youngi) and hairy-legged vampire bats (Diphylla ecaudata). We compared species-typical contact call structure, and used information theory and permuted discriminate function analyses to examine call structure variation, and to determine if the individuality of contact calls is encoded by different call features across species and populations. We found that isolated adult vampire bats produce contact calls that vary by species, population, colony, and individual. However, much variation occurred within a single context and individual. We estimated signature information for captive Diaemus (same colony), captive Desmodus (same colony), and wild Desmodus (different colonies) at 3.21, 3.26, and 3.88 bits, respectively. Contact calls from a captive colony of Desmodus were less individually distinct than calls from wild-caught Desmodus from different colonies. Both the degree of individuality and parameters encoding individuality differed between the bats from a single captive colony and the wild-caught individuals from different groups. This result is consistent with, but not sufficient evidence of, vocal convergence in groups. CONCLUSION: Our results show that adult vampire bats of all three species produce highly variable contact calls when isolated. Contact calls contain sufficient information for vocal discrimination, but also possess more intra-individual variation than is required for the sole purpose of identifying individuals.

Contact calls are utilized by several bird and mammal species to maintain group cohesion and coordinate group movement. From a signal design perspective, contact calls typically exhibit acoustic features that make them easily localizable and encode information about individual or group identity. Pallid bats ( Antrozous pallidus ) are unusual among vespertilionids in that they often emit a loud, partially audible frequency-modulated social call several times in rapid succession while in flight. This call appears to function as a contact call in that it is frequently given when bats return from foraging and perform circular flights before entering a crevice roost. However, the degree to which pallid bats respond to the calls of conspecifics and what information is provided in the call is unknown. Thus, the goal of this study was to investigate pallid bat calling behavior to determine if calls attract roostmates or elicit responses from them and provide sufficient information for individual recognition. In playback studies, we found that contact calls, elicit calls, and approaches and that free-flying bats respond more to familiar than unfamiliar calls. In addition, analysis of frequency and temporal measurements of calls collected from multiple sites and spectral cross correlation analysis of calls recorded from the same radio-tagged bats on multiple evenings revealed that the frequency pattern of contact calls is highly repeatable over time within individuals but exhibits significant differences among individuals. Thus, contact call structure appears to be unique to individuals and stable through time, which makes these calls well-suited for roostmate recognition.

Sex-biased dispersal is a specific pattern of movement whereby one sex either stays or returns to its natal group or natal area to breed while the other disperses from the natal area. Temperate vespertilionid bats are thought to exhibit the typical mammalian pattern of male-biased dispersal although relatively few studies have been conducted on this group. The northern myotis (Myotis sptentrionalis) is a relatively common forest dwelling bat found in eastern North America. Despite being a common species in North America, relatively little is known about its habitat requirements and life history characteristics including dispersal patterns. Using five polymorphic microsatellite loci I found that females within localized subpopulations exhibited a higher degree of genetic structuring than males indicating female philopatry and male-biased dispersal [female F-ST = 0.011; male F-ST = -0.016; P = 0.006 (sex-biased dispersal randomization test)]. I also found a weak (F-ST = 0.002), but significant (P = 0.03), average fixation index for the subpopulations examined which is consistent with other studies on temperate vespertilionid bats. The presence of maternity site fidelity in M. septentrionalis may have important conservation implications since commercial and private development that thins or removes potential roost trees could have an impact on pregnant female bats that will have to incur additional costs of searching for new roosting habitat as they return from their hibernacula.

Challenges in training faculty in inquiry-based, learner-centered instruction include empirically evaluating the efficacy of training in teaching and sustaining long-term support for change. We developed the Faculty Institutes for Reforming Science Teaching (FIRST IV) model to provide new approaches to professional development in biology instruction for postdoctoral scholars. The goal was to develop early-career faculty who value and implement evidence-based pedagogies that facilitate learning. We report the activities and outcomes of FIRST IV, using comprehensive evidence derived from expert reviews of participants’ teaching, self-reported data from participants and students, and comparisons with non-project faculty. Participants completed a workshop twice in two years, followed by teaching an entire or partial course at their institution and sustained mentoring by STEM education experts. Postdocs showed belief in learner-centered teaching, and 74% taught using primarily learner-centered practices. We followed a subset of participants into their first faculty positions and quantified how their instructional design and student assessments differed from a colleague at the same institution. External review of teaching indicated that FIRST IV faculty practiced significantly more learner-centered instruction and used more collaborative learning than their colleagues. We conclude that the FIRST IV model offers significant and unique contributions to current challenges in professional development in STEM education I. Subject/Problem Introduction In recent years, the growing emphasis on improving the state of undergraduate education in the sciences (e.g., Anderson et al. 2011, Brewer and Smith 2011, President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology 2012, Association of American Universities 2014) calls for a transformation of undergraduate science courses. The transformation of STEM education requires a fundamental change in how college instructors approach teaching and learning, moving from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered model (Weimer 2002). In response, LEARNER-CENTERED FUTURE FACULTY: FIRST IV – A UNIQUELY EFFECTIVE PROGRAM OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 2 professional development workshops have been widely available for decades and represent a common venue for instructors to think about and engage in questions related to teaching and learning. Despite the availability and interest in these professional development opportunities, there is little evidence of resulting widespread change in teaching practice (Garet et al. 2001, Gibbs and Coffey 2004, Henderson et al. 2011, Henderson et al. 2012). Thus, there is a continued need for new models of professional development that result in transformed teaching by participants. Describing outcomes of professional development initiatives objectively is critical to developing best teaching practices that ultimately improve learning by students in science classrooms. Rigorous assessment of professional development programs is particularly important since even instructors with the best of intentions often do not implement the teaching strategies that they learned in workshops, yet report doing so (e.g., Ebert-May et al. 2011). The availability of reliable evidence for teaching practice after professional development is limited across STEM disciplines, making the identification of “best practices” and effective change models challenging (Henderson et al. 2011, Amundsen and Wilson 2012). To date, the majority of professional development programs and workshops are evaluated through self-report surveys that focus on participant satisfaction and perceived learning only (e.g., Pfund et al. 2009, Ebert-May et al. 2011). Rigorous evaluation of what participants learned during a workshop and what type of teaching they implement post workshop is largely unavailable in the literature (Connolly and Millar 2006), particularly with regard to independent assessment of classroom practice that supports self-reported data. We designed a professional development program with the goal of developing future biology faculty who value and implement evidence-based pedagogies to facilitate student learning. In response to the need for empirical evidence that a professional development program is effective, we incorporated rigorous evaluation methods that use self-reported data from the participants and external observation and analysis of their teaching while participating in Faculty Institutes for Reforming Science Teaching (FIRST). In developing FIRST, we selected implementation strategies based on scientific teaching research (Handelsman et al. 2004), findings from the conceptual change literature, and outcomes of a previous FIRST program. The challenge of creating instructional change in higher education and understanding how to promote such change has been a topic of much conversation (e.g., reviews by Emerson and Mosteller 2000, Henderson et al. 2011). The educational reform effort requires a fundamental shift in how the instructor conceives the learning and teaching experience, as described by conceptual change theories (e.g., Posner et al. 1982, Pintrich et al. 1993, Feldman 2000). In order to produce transformed educational practices, it is important that instructors are dissatisfied with teaching practices and recognize the importance of change (Gess-Newsome et al. 2003). What strategies, then, can promote educational transformation? Henderson et al. (2011) concluded, after an exhaustive review of the instructional change literature, that effective change strategies must leverage instructor beliefs, employ long-term interventions (>1 semester), and LEARNER-CENTERED FUTURE FACULTY: FIRST IV – A UNIQUELY EFFECTIVE PROGRAM OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 3 work within the complex dynamics of colleges and universities. Additionally, Emerson and Mosteller (2000) determined that successful change strategies are collegial, use coordinated efforts over an extended period of time, and are focused and concrete. Henderson et al. (2011) also concluded that the “state of change strategies applied to undergraduate STEM instruction is not strong...new work often does not build on prior empirical or theoretical work; and most published results claim success of the change strategy studied, but the evidence presented is often not strong” (pg. 977). We designed the FIRST program to fill these gaps in design and program evaluation. Our goals were to develop an improved professional development model and to provide evidence for its effectiveness at transforming teaching practice. Through our program we helped future biology faculty learn and/or improve their use of evidence-based teaching strategies and fostered instructors who value and implement learner-centered teaching. The program design leveraged many of the change strategies identified above: specifically, the program was built on a mentored, team-based approach to learning in which participants engaged in an iterative process of materials development and implementation in the classroom, followed by reflection and revision. Importantly, we paired this process with a strong focus on objective data collection, in order to evaluate the success of the program. II. Design/Procedure The subjects of the FIRST program were 201 postdoctoral scholars (PDs). We recruited participants nationally in 2009 and 2011 to form two separate cohorts of 99 and 102 PDs respectively. All protocols used in the FIRST project were approved by the Michigan State University Institutional Review Board (IRB #X08-550 Exempt, Category 2). To begin, each cohort participated in a four-day training workshop in which they began the process of developing an entire introductory biology course, while concurrently learning about learnercentered teaching pedagogy and practices, course design, and assessment. During year 1 for each cohort, teams of PDs continued to develop their introductory biology course and completed at least one teaching experience, consisting of an entire college-level course or part of a course taught with other faculty. At the beginning of their second year, each cohort participated in a three-day training workshop that focused heavily on reflection on teaching experiences that occurred in year 1 and further development of learner-centered teaching practices and course design. During year 2 the PDs continued to refine their introductory course and again completed at least one teaching experience. Throughout their project participation PDs worked in teams, each of which had an assigned mentor who was an expert in STEM pedagogy and teaching. The mentors provided feedback about teaching, development of courses and teaching materials, and job applications. Each PD team scheduled meetings with the mentor as needed. Research Question 1: To what extent was the program effective at developing PDs who taught using learner-centered, inquiry-based approaches? The effectiveness of the professional development program was determined using a mixed methods analysis. We compiled data from three sources: 1) self-report data from the PDs and students about the instruction and classroom LEARNER-CENTERED FUTURE FACULTY: FIRST IV – A UNIQUELY EFFECTIVE PROGRAM OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 4 environment, 2) external expert review of teaching videos of courses taught by PDs, and 3) data obtained from some PDs once they gained employment in a full-time teaching position. We characterized the PDs’ beliefs about their own teaching using the Approaches to Teaching Inventory 22 (ATI; Trigwell and Prosser 2004, Trigwell et al. 2005) and surveys that we designed to document the PDs’ knowledge and experience with active-learning pedagogy and teaching strategies. The ATI measures qualitative variation in two key dimensions of teaching; specifically, conceptual-change/student-focused (CCSF) and information-transmission/teacherfocused (ITTF). Classroom teaching practice was assessed by experts who