Measuring and modelling the shape of tree stems is a fundamental component of forest inventory systems for both commercial and biological purposes. The change in diameter of the stem along its length (a.k.a. 'taper') is one of the most important and widely used means of predicting tree stem volume. Until recently, the options for obtaining accurate estimates of stem taper and developing stem taper models have been limited to measurements of felled trees or the use of optical dendrometers on standing live trees. Here, we tested both a tripod -mounted terrestrial laser scanner (TLS; a Focus 3D 120 of FARO Technologies, Inc., Lake Mary, FL, USA), and a mobile laser scanner (MLS; the ZEB1 of the GeoSLAM Ltd, Nottingham, UK) to measure tree diameters at various heights along the stem of 20 destructively harvested broadleaf and needleleaf species using the outer hull modelling method, for the purpose of developing individual -tree and species -specific taper models. Laser scanner specifications were a major factor determining stem taper measurement accuracy. The longer-range, low beam divergence TLS could estimate stem diameter to an average of 15.7 m above ground (about 79 per cent of the canopy height), while the shorter-range high beam divergence MLS could estimate an average of 11.5 m above ground (about 45 per cent of the canopy height). Stem taper error increased with respect to height above ground, with the TLS providing more consistent and reliable diameter measurements (root mean square error (RMSE) = 1.93 cm; 9.57 per cent) compared with the MLS (RMSE = 2.59 cm; 12.84 per cent), but both methods were nearly unbiased. We attribute similar to 60 per cent of the uncertainty in stem measurements to laser beam diameter and point density, showing positive and negative correlations, respectively. MLS was unable to converge on the two tested taper models but was found to be an efficient means of easily sampling diameters at breast height (DBH) and reconstructing stem maps in simple forest stands with trees greater than similar to 10 cm DBH. TLS provided precision stem diameter measurements that allowed for the creation of similar taper models for three out of the four study species. Future work should focus on evaluating MLS systems with improved specifications (e.g. beam divergence and range), since these instruments will likely lead to dramatic improvements in reliable estimates of forest inventory parameters, in line with the current TLS technology.

Physical or virtual contact with greenery has positive impacts on human health.The presence of urban green spaces provides recreational opportunities, while for viewers the contact influences emotional states.For locations with limited floor space, green infrastructure such as a green roofs or vertical greenery can multiply exposure opportunities.In this case study, we sought to understand the responses of occupants to an indoor vertical greenery system (iVGS).This study explored the responses to the iVGS using a survey based on the Short-Version Revised Restoration Scale (SRRS), with responses collected onsite and online.The study examined the differences in responses between the respondents who were physically present at the iVGS (onsite) and those who viewed photographs of the iVGS online.The study also presents data on the number of passers-by before and after the iVGS was installed.Both online and onsite results revealed mostly positive responses towards the installation of the iVGS, with the onsite respondents giving higher scores than the online respondents.The restoration scores of iVGS demonstrates that it refreshes cognitive energy and brings positive impact and emotions.Responses to the SRSS provides tentative evidence that iVGS may have some restorative benefits, which is consistent with our understanding of the benefits of vertical greenery more generally.However, more research is required to confirm this.

A structure is taken to be a green building if it benefits the environment, people, and the economy.For a building to be ratified as green, the building owners must adhere to specific guidelines and requirements.A green building involves using sustainable practices from construction to completion, as well as having long-term positive effects on users and the environment.Retrofitting vertical greenery offers various benefits, such as increasing indoor air quality, and is an attractive and effective way of achieving green building rating points.This study adopts an integrative review methodology to assess, analyse, and synthesize the current literature, and highlights the potential of green retrofitting for improving indoor environmental quality.The requirements for three green building certification schemes were reviewed and it is concluded that vertical greenery (outdoor and indoor) can potentially contribute to give value/points of the indoor environmental quality rating criteria that are used.The findings also indicate that, vertical greenery is applicable for retrofitting existing or conventional buildings, so they meet green building certification.

Many people spend the majority of their time indoors and there is emerging evidence that interior greenery contributes to human wellbeing. Accurately capturing the amount of interior greenery is an important first step in studying its contribution to human well-being. In this study, we evaluated the accuracy of interior greenery captured using 360° panoramic images taken within a range of different interior spaces. We developed an Interior Green View Index (iGVI) based on a K-means clustering algorithm to estimate interior greenery from 360° panoramic images taken within 66 interior spaces and compared these estimates with interior greenery measured manually from the same panoramic images. Interior greenery estimated using the automated method ranged from 0% to 34.19% of image pixels within the sampled interior spaces. Interior greenery estimated using the automated method was highly correlated (r = 0.99) with interior greenery measured manually, although we found the accuracy of the automated method compared with the manual method declined with the volume and illuminance of interior spaces. The results suggested that our automated method for extracting interior greenery from 360° panoramic images is a useful tool for rapidly estimating interior greenery in all but very large and highly illuminated interior spaces.

In the summer of 2019/20, bushfires of unprecedented scale in south-eastern Australia focused attention on how forest management might have affected their risks and impacts. Some argued that the severity and extent of these fires were made worse by timber harvesting and associated forest management and that harvesting in native forests should cease as a means for reducing fire risk. Little evidence has been presented to support these contentions. This article reviews evidence for the relationship between harvesting and fire extent and severity from these fires. The proportion of forested conservation reserves burnt in these fires was similar to that for public forests where timber harvesting is permitted, and the proportion of forest burnt with different levels of fire severity was similar across tenures and over time since timber harvest. Recent analysis of the areas burnt in 2019/20 indicated that the extent and severity of the fires was determined almost entirely by three years of well-below-average rainfall (leading to dry fuels across all vegetation types), extreme fire weather conditions and local topography and that past timber harvesting had negligible or no impact on fire severity. Three major inquiries into the fires made no recommendations regarding the impact of timber harvesting on fire risk. We argue that policy proposals to mitigate fire risk and impacts should be evidence-based and, to avoid the cognitive bias associated with expert opinions, should integrate the multiple perspectives of traditional Indigenous knowledge, the experience of local and professional fire managers, and the breadth of evidence from bushfire research. Together, these perspectives should inform strategies for reducing bushfire impacts and increasing forest resilience and community safety.

Climate change is affecting tree growth and vitality, including potentially accelerating growth rate or exacerbating drought stress. Physiological and phenological changes of a tree may eventually disrupt the beneficial effects that it provides to the ecosystem ('ecosystem services'). This research examined how the urban forest in Canberra has responded to climate change in the last 20 years. A road survey was conducted to document the growth of commonly planted trees across the city, which was then compared with a tree growth model (DISMUT) that reflected growth around the turn of the 20th century. The results suggest that urban trees have various mechanisms whereby they respond to climate change, and these mechanisms are partially based on tolerance to heat and drought, leaf phenology and age. In general, trees with high tolerance, evergreen leaves and young age grow faster and bigger than expected, while drought-intolerant, deciduous and older trees are more likely to exhibit restricted size. Water deficit is one of the main threats to tree vitality in Canberra. Species alleviate water deficit stress by forming dead branches or showing crown dieback. However, these symptoms undermine the ecosystem services that urban trees can provide. Urban forest management should be modified to adapt to the changes in trees, including accelerated growth and severe stress symptoms. DISMUT models can be updated to incorporate the systematic deviations in growth to improve predictions and scenario planning.

Dead trees can occur throughout an urban forest and need to be managed. Standing dead trees that have been made 'safe' through regular inspection and the removal of unstable and decaying material are called 'totem trees' by Transport Canberra and City Services in Canberra, Australia. This paper is a pilot case study of totem trees in Canberra, employing an innovative mixed-methods approach, which includes silvicultural assessment, focal sampling, ad libitum sampling, in situ observation of evidence for fauna presence, and public questionnaires. It demonstrates that totem trees have significant habitat value because they provide perching, nesting, vocalisation, habitation and feeding sites for birds and arboreal mammals, as well as habitation and food for reptiles, insects and fungi. Totem trees with greater structural complexity appear to be preferred by fauna. The questionnaire findings, from park users and nearby park residents, indicate a generally positive attitude towards totem trees, with most participants perceiving them as valuable habitat for fauna and appreciating their aesthetic appeal. This highlights an important juxtaposition of management priorities: the need to balance structural complexity with providing safe trees. The findings of this study underscore the need to maintain and enlarge the totem tree population given their significant habitat value and social functions. Freestanding, structurally complex dead trees with numerous hollows, branches and bark should be prioritised for conservation. Additionally, the raising of public awareness is recommended to address any ongoing public uncertainty regarding the safety of totem trees.

Background: Extensive forest inventory data is available from commercial timber companies. For this study, over 20,000 plots were compiled for North, East and West Kalimantan provinces, with more than 17,000 of these exceeding our quality assurance tests. This study aimed to: (1) explore the potential use of existing permanent sample plots and forest inventory data established and measured by timber concessions; (2) assess uncertainties of aboveground biomass (AGB) estimates using various allometric models; (3) analyse the dynamics of AGB in logged-over dipterocarp forests; (4) analyse AGB stocks and emission factors in tropical dipterocarp ecosystems. Methods: Two types of forest monitoring datasets measured by timber companies in Indonesia were compiled and assessed in this study: permanent sample plots (PSPs) (24 1-ha plots), and the overall periodic timber inventory (OPTI) (17,301 plots). We compared various allometric equations for estimating AGB of the plots and developed a simple AGB equation using basal area (BA) as predictor. We further evaluated the AGB growth and mortality using the PSP plots. Results: We found that the model using only tree diameter (D) as a predictor variable tended to be unbiased when aggregating the estimates at larger plots. We also found that BA per hectare could explain the variation of AGB at plot level (adjusted r2 = 0.911; root mean square error [RMSE]: 27.8). We overlaid the OPTI plot with the land cover map and estimated the mean AGB of the associated land cover classes. The mean AGB of primary dryland forest, secondary dryland forest and bush classes were 281.1 + 4.0 Mg/ha, 231.5 + 1.7 Mg/ha and 179.0 + 5.0 Mg/ha, respectively. Nine years after logging, the mean AGB is still lower than the mean AGB two years after logging. The growth rate (2.5%) was still lower than the mortality rate (3.1%), and recruitment (0.2%) did not occur until seven years after logging. Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that the existing forest monitoring data should be incorporated into the carbon accounting system at district, province and national level to improve the estimation of forest biomass and emission factors related to forest degradation and deforestation. However, there is a need for data quality assessment prior the analysis and a standardised platform for nation-wide forest inventory database is therefore required.

Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) instruments like the Zebedee (including the Zeb-1 and its derivatives) and Dual-Wavelength Echidna LiDAR (DWEL) can usefully measure tree diameter, height and annual height growth for trees up to at least 10 m tall in a forest plantation setting. In a case study at the National Arboretum Canberra, these two types of scanner were compared with traditional methods (diameter tape and height stick) in the measurement of tree diameter, height and growth rate. The TLS instruments were accurate with height measurement correlations of not different to 1:1 and withr(2)= 0.99 and 0.98 (Zeb-1 and DWEL, respectively), whereas comparing measurements of height growth over a two-year period, the TLS instruments displayed an agreement of 83% and 93%, respectively. The Zebedee instruments also correlated significantly with diameter at breast height (DBH;r(2)= 0.97), although limited tests with the DWEL collected at a single point in inventory plots did not find a significant correlation. The additional detail provided by TLS instruments such as Zeb-1and DWEL has the potential to substantially improve data collected about the spatial distribution, canopy dimensions and trunk parameters of numerous trees in an operational inventory of a forest stand. However, there may be difficulties in developing and testing new reference definitions of these parameters, especially 'diameter', that would allow historical comparisons and improved future use for foresters and ecologists.

When foresters ask me, as a university academic, about forestry education, they appear to be thinking predominately about bachelor, master’s and PhD programs that include ‘forestry’ or ‘forest science’ in their titles. In the course of these conversations, many foresters lament the demise of the four-year professional and ‘named’ forestry bachelor degrees in Australia, now that the Australian National University (ANU) and the University of Melbourne have disestablished their programs (although the Bachelor of Forest Science and Management continues at Southern Cross University (SCU)). With the exception of the SCU’s Bachelor and Master of Forest Science and Management, and ANU’s Master of Forestry, no bachelor or master’s programs in Australia now include the words ‘forestry’ or ‘forest science’. Tertiarylevel students can and still do enrol in bachelor and master’s programs with titles that include ‘environment’, ‘ecosystem’, ‘sustainability’ or ‘conservation’, in which they can craft programs comprising courses that focus on ‘forestry’. The ANU, for example, offers three master’s programs in its Fenner School of Environment and Society—‘Environment’; ‘Environmental Science’; and ‘Forestry’—and candidates in each of these can focus on forestry and include courses that cover essentials like silviculture, mensuration, forest policy and management. Nevertheless, there remains a perception that a forest focus is optional and all too easily diluted unless the program is specifically named. In the ANU master’s programs, only graduates in the Master of Forestry typically self-identify as foresters, and only those graduates are required to take forestry-oriented courses that are optional for the others. ‘Education’ is increasingly defined in wide-ranging terms: for example, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO 2016, fig. 0.1, reproduced in Fig. 1) identifies ‘formal’, ‘non-formal’ and ‘informal’ forms of education, at multiple levels. A focus on named bachelor and master’s programs as ‘the’ level at which forestry education occurs misses many types and levels where the whole concept of forestry can be learned and practised. For example, there are formal apprenticeships, certificates and diplomas (at International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 3–4 or, at the graduate level, ISCED 6–7) in which participants focus on technical or other bounded aspects of forestry needed to keep the industry and profession viable. In 2019, the University of the Sunshine Coast and the University of Tasmania both proposed a number of new graduate certificates and diplomas to focus on wood science, engineering, harvesting and wood use. These levels of education could lead to graduates who support improved productivity, stronger economic growth and better service delivery in forest management and wood use (World Bank 2018). A recent ANU Master of Environment graduate, Dollie Yao (whose thesis abstract appears in this issue), examined the potential for forestry education at ISCED level 3 (upper secondary) (Yao 2019). She concluded that, although there are numerous opportunities within the Australian core curriculum to incorporate forestry and, as a next step, to promote proforests behaviour that emphasises wise forest management and use, forests are rarely incorporated or are only represented indirectly in course curricula. Where forests are included, Yao found that they are typically portrayed in narrow or negative contexts (e.g. deforestation). She suggests that individual teachers, passionate and appropriately resourced, would be key to realising the pro-environment and pro-forests potential of Australian upper secondary education. In support of this, the ForestLearning initiative (http://forestlearning.edu.au/) is providing free pro-environment and pro-forestry material to support authorised school curricula. Formal education also extends to Early Childhood (ISCED 0), and there appears to be a resurgence of efforts to ensure that early childhood is partly experienced ‘outdoors’. ‘Forest kindergartens’, ‘bush kinders’ and ‘nature schools’ are appearing in Australia, where 3–6-year-olds spend substantial, if not all their, learning time outside school buildings and in ‘nature’. Of course, trees feature in all these schools, from which students can move through the formal education system with the foundational knowledge that they are part of the environment and can learn and work in the forests. As Figure 1 indicates, formal learning is only part of the education environment. Non-formal education is increasingly available via digital platforms, ranging from podcast series through to ‘massively open online courses’ (MOOCs), which may provide certificates of completion. Many of the MOOCs involve university input but do not necessarily meet ISCED standards. A number of available MOOCs mention ‘forest’, although the range is eclectic—from poetry and photography to ecology, sustainability and human history. Informal education can be even more varied and variable, ranging from media and outlets that have high editorial standards and production quality (e.g. BBC documentaries, digital platforms like The Conversation and high-quality print outlets) through to enthusiast and ‘conspiracy-theory’ opportunities like some YouTube and podcast series with agenda-based products. Non-formal and informal education cannot easily be monitored, and even truth-checking is limited, but unfortunately it now forms the majority of the ‘education’ that people receive on forestry and the environment. For example, it is much easier to make a dramatic and powerful newspaper headline or YouTube video on deforestation (and, by association, forestry) than to follow the cycles and nuances of

Most allometric equations currently used to quantify above-ground biomass of urban trees are derived from natural forest stands and can produce unreliable estimates of biomass for individual trees grown in open conditions. In addition, distribution of standing volume between stem, branch and foliage in solitary grown urban trees is poorly understood. In this study, a total of 45 trees of three species (Ulmus procera, n = 15, Corymbia maculta, n = 15 and, Platanus x acerofolia, n = 15) of different size (small, medium and large) were measured. For six trees of each species (18 in total), the stem and all major branches were fully mapped so that an accurate wood volume was established, and various random branch samples (RBS) and composites could be used to estimate standing volume. For the remaining nine trees of each tree species standing volume was estimated by only measuring five RBS pathways. Allometric relationships between diameter and volume were explored using linear, quadratic, cubic, log and exponential models. Slenderness ratio (SR) and bifurcation ratio (BR) were derived to explore canopy structure among species. U. procera trees showed the greatest BR, followed by P. x acerifolia and lowest in C. maculata. In U. procera, SR displayed a decreasing trend from scaffolds to third order branches while the opposite was true for C. maculata and P. x acerifolia. Number and dimensions of scaffolds, first and second order branches of small and medium size trees were similar but differed from that of large trees. Overall, standing volume distribution among species was 40% to the main stem and 60% to the crown. Across species and tree size class, RBS systematically under- or over-estimated standing volume in the range of -30% to + 42% as compared to full tree measurements. Regardless of tree size, allometric relationships were similar within species but varied among crown structural parts. Linear models better explained diameter-volume relationships of whole tree and main stem across species. Log-Log and polynomial models better described diameter-volume relationships of branches of all orders. These findings suggest that a set of allometric equations could be developed to more accurately predict standing volume yield of urban trees.

Urban green infrastructure improves the urban environment and enriches the lives of urban dwellers by positively affecting ambient temperatures, noise levels, and air quality, and creating an environment that promotes human health. Green technologies are increasingly used to increase green patches in urban areas. In this review of 108 vertical greenery publications, the potential physical and non-physical contributions of a subset of green infrastructure-vertical greenery systems-are presented. Most studies focus on how greenery improves the thermal performance of individual buildings and the potential energy savings, but non-physical benefits, such as health and well-being, have received little attention.

Assessing tree growth trends over time is a central but challenging aspect of urban forest management. The potential damage caused by invasive devices used in dendrochronological analysis is a common concern among urban foresters. Thus, the development of a less-invasive method for assessing tree growth rate faster that provides reliable results is clearly beneficial. In this study, resistance drilling (RD) profiles were compared with stem core assessments (Core) to estimate the growth rate of 78 trees of three species (Quercus robur, Ulmus procera, and Platanus x acerofolia). All studied trees were core-sampled in 2013 and then resistance drilled in 2015 at a stem height of 1-1.3 m in both north (N) and west axes (W). The dependency and accuracy of paired annual ring series (CORE measurements and Resi reading) were tested using ANOVA and regression analysis. In addition, point and event year tests were determined to confirm the accuracy of the RD to assess growth trends at both population and tree level. Growth series from both methods were cross-dated to WA the reliability of RD to relate historical tree growth to past climatic conditions. ANOVA analysis confirmed that average ring width values and age of 70 out of 78 trees were statistically similar for both methods and similar for both sampled stem axes. Within each tree, regression analysis indicated significant correlation between cored ring datasets and paired resistance drilled ring datasets (R-2 = 0.78-0.95, p < 0.05) across species. RD reliably detected pointer years at population level for Q. robur only. For all species, RD could not adequately detect event years at tree level. Regardless of species and drill axes, RD was less accurate in measuring ring width below 1 mm. For all species, RD yielded lower intercorrelation indices and greater number of "A" flagged segments as compared to CORE. Overall, RD can successfully estimate mean annual ring values to a comparable standard as conventional CORE analysis. However, the RD device used in this study did not detect the inter-annual growth pattern to the same standard as stem CORE analysis, RD should not be used to replace dendrochronology in climate-tree growth studies.

Urban greenery is valued not only for its aesthetic value but also for environmental services and the overall health benefits that follows. A large portion of the world population now resides in built environments, and there is growing need to provide a conducive and healthy environment for the dwellers. Vertical greenery systems (VGS) provide greenery opportunities in cities even when there is limited land space especially as recent technology enables people to grow plants outdoors as well as indoors. Indoor vertical greenery (iVGS) was installed to monitor any alteration in the temperature, humidity, particulate matter and use of space. The present study used an actual environment, included paralled corridors in the same building. The movement in both corridors were significantly (p < 0.05) correlated and post green wall establishment data showed the relationship changed significantly (r(2) = 0.8748, P < 0.0001, RMSE = 23.4521) with relatively more people using the corridor after the iVGS installed. Significant difference was seen in the humidity levels but not in the temperature after the installation. Particulate matter levels dropped 48.5%, 82.6%, 5.5% (PM2.5, PM10, > PM10 respectively) in the corridor with iVGS by the end of the data collection. These findings suggest larger green coverage would have a greater positive impact on the environmental conditions of an indoor environment.