ABSTRACT Climate change is driving a global shift from flooded (anaerobic) to dryland/rainfed (aerobic) rice production. While aerobic systems reduce water use and methane emissions, they can exacerbate soil zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) deficiencies due to altered redox conditions. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are more effective at colonising and functioning in aerobic soil and may enhance host plant water use efficiency (WUE) and micronutrient uptake in nutrient‐limited soils. We assessed the potential for AM fungi to support aerobic rice growth compared to flooded conditions, in combination with Zn fertiliser treatments. Two Australian rice cultivars, Topaz and Viand, were grown under three watering conditions (flooded, 60% or 80% of soil field capacity [FC]) using a precision irrigation platform. Plants were inoculated with AM fungi (Rhizophagus irregularis) or not inoculated, and Zn was applied at 0 or 5 mg Zn kg⁻¹ soil. At plant maturity, the grain yield, water use, WUE and concentrations of grain Zn were measured. Both rice cultivars produced significantly more grain under aerobic soil conditions than flooded, with improved WUE. AM fungal inoculation led to reduced water use in Viand under 60% and 80% FC. However, reduced water use in mycorrhizal Viand plants was in line with lower grain yield in those plants, so WUE did not increase. Zn fertilisation enhanced grain Zn concentrations of Topaz and Viand grown in both aerobic treatments, but not under flooded conditions. However, the combination of Zn fertilisation and AM fungi reduced grain Fe concentration in all watering conditions, indicating an antagonistic Zn–Fe relationship. These findings support the potential adaptability of Topaz and Viand to aerobic production. Future research should explore integrated nutrient strategies to mitigate the trade‐off between Zn and Fe in rice grain, and the potential of AM fungi to contribute to WUE.

OzBarley is a comprehensive genotype-to-phenotype resource to support research and enhance barley breeding by integrating genotypic and phenotypic data for gene discovery. This publicly available dataset comprises genotypic data from historical and modern elite barley cultivars of significance to Australian barley breeding. The phenotypic component includes high-throughput imaging and X-ray CT-based spike analysis, enabling trait measurements such as plant growth dynamics and seed morphology. Users can leverage genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and genomic selection to identify genetic variants associated with agronomically important traits in the OzBarley datasets, thereby accelerating targeted breeding strategies. The dataset is accessible for download under CC-BY 4.0 license and users are invited to contribute new data when using OzBarley plant material in their research. Through its FAIR-compliant design (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable), OzBarley represents a resource to protect genotypes of historical relevance, explore the genetic architecture of adaptation to dryland environments, and to enhance knowledge of the resilience, yield, and quality of barley cultivars under diverse environmental conditions, contributing to global food security and agricultural sustainability.

Societal Impact StatementArbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi support plant development by enhancing growth and resistance to pathogens through mycorrhiza‐induced resistance (MIR). However, the varying capacities of individual AM fungal species to induce MIR are not well‐understood, limiting their agricultural potential. This study reveals that specific AM fungal isolates differ in their ability to enhance tomato growth and reduce biomass losses due to Rhizoctonia solani infection, a major root pathogen. By identifying MIR‐effective fungal isolates and linking them to shifts in root‐associated chemical composition, we highlight potential to improve crop resilience and productivity, advancing agriculture by enabling more efficient use of AM fungi.Summary Mycorrhiza‐induced resistance (MIR) can increase plant resistance to pathogens, reducing disease symptoms and biomass losses. However, the beneficial effects of different arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal species vary greatly, and the mechanisms behind these differences are not well‐understood. This study investigates varying levels of MIR among AM fungal isolates and their impact on the plant root‐associated metabolome, examining the influence of AM fungi's functional diversity on plant growth, defence, and molecular patterns. Using phenotyping observations, we assessed temporal variation in growth responses of tomato plants inoculated with Rhizoctonia solani and four different AM fungal isolates from the Glomeraceae and Gigasporaceae families, comparing these responses to changes in the root‐associated metabolome. Our results show that most AM fungal isolates enhanced plant growth, with two out of four demonstrating MIR‐effective potential during symbiosis with tomatoes without trade‐offs. The effectiveness of MIR was reflected in variations in metabolomic profiles, with an increase in downregulated metabolomic compounds in effective species. This study enhances understanding of AM fungal species‐specific differences in growth‐related MIR responses in tomatoes and the roles of biochemistry, supporting findings that Glomeraceae species have better MIR abilities. Our results suggest greater MIR‐related biochemical capabilities within Glomeraceae compared to Gigasporaceae.

The relative performance of rhizobial strains could depend on their resource allocation, environmental conditions, and host genotype. Here, we used a high-throughput shoot phenotyping to investigate the effects of Mesorhizobium strain on the growth dynamics, nodulation and bacteroid traits with four chickpea (Cicer arietinum) varieties grown under different water regimes in an experiment including four nitrogen sources (two Mesorhizobium strains, and two uninoculated controls: nitrogen fertilised and unfertilised) under well-watered and drought conditions. We asked three questions. Does the impact of rhizobial strains on chickpea growth change with well-watered versus drought conditions? Do Mesorhizobium strains differ in their ability to influence biomass and nodule traits of chickpea varieties under well-watered and drought conditions? Are bacteroid size and amount of polyhydroxybutyrate modified by Mesorhizobium strain, chickpea variety, water availability and their interactions? Under well-watered conditions, chickpea inoculated with CC1192 showed higher shoot growth rates than M075 and accumulated high plant biomass at harvest. Under drought conditions, however, the shoot growth rate was comparable between CC1192 and M075, with no significant difference in plant biomass and symbiotic effectiveness at harvest. Across sources of variation, plant biomass varied 3.0-fold, nodules per plant 3.9-fold, nodule dry weight 3.0-fold, symbiotic effectiveness 1.5-fold, bacteroid size 1.4-fold and bacteroid polyhydroxybutyrate 1.4-fold. Plant biomass was negatively correlated with both bacteroid size and allocation to polyhydroxybutyrate under well-watered conditions, suggesting a trade-off between plant and rhizobial fitness. This study demonstrates the need to reassess rhizobial strain effectiveness across diverse environments, recognising the dynamic nature of their interaction with host plants.

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa) has gained renewed scientific and agricultural interest worldwide as a multi-use, high-value crop, with products spanning textile, clothing, medicinal, food, and construction industries. Cannabis exhibits broad genetic diversity and high phenotypic plasticity, with strong genotype × environment interactions, resulting in varied aboveground growth habits from tall and thin to short and bushy. Here, we compared the growth and response to water deficit over time in seedlings of two tall, thin French dual-purpose industrial hemp genotypes, Felina 32 and Ferimon 12, and one short, bushy Chinese dual-purpose genotype, Han NE, using state-of-the-art non-destructive phenotyping and automated gravimetric watering systems. Despite the different growth habits, growth patterns were remarkably similar. Water deficit consistently reduced shoot and root dry weight, plant height, number of leaf pairs, CO2 assimilation, and stomatal conductance in all three genotypes. Han NE showed potential for greater water use efficiency, possibly linked to the shorter bushy growth habit, but further research is needed to evaluate varying growth habits within different environments and over the entire plant lifecycle. This study provides valuable insights into diverse hemp genotypes to inform field-based agronomic decisions and targeted breeding programs.

ABSTRACTMost rice production is conducted in flooded (anaerobic) soil conditions, but aerobic rice cultivation presents several potential benefits: increased grain water use efficiency (gWUE), reduced methane emissions, and minimised loss of phosphorus (P). Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are more effective at colonising and functioning in rice under aerobic soil conditions, and this rice‐AM fungi association could increase both gWUE and P acquisition efficiency (PAE). We used a precision irrigation platform to apply watering treatments (60% or 80% of soil field capacity) throughout the experiment. Four commercial Australian rice varieties were grown with or without inoculation with Rhizophagus irregularis, and with addition of P fertiliser at 10 or 25 mg P kg–1 soil. Plants were grown to maturity (134–188 days after planting), after which grain yield, plant water use, gWUE, and PAE were determined. Overall, R. irregularis inoculation increased gWUE in all four rice varieties (by a mean of 14.4%), and increased grain yield and PAE in two varieties. Grain yields were primarily constrained by low water availability (mean 48.4% reduction), but P availability also limited yield in two varieties. Of the four, Topaz showed the greatest response to AM fungal inoculation, with increased qWUE and PAE. There is potential for AM fungal inoculation to increase the water use and P acquisition efficiencies of aerobically grown rice. However, the extent of these benefits depends on the specific rice variety, which highlights the importance of variety selection in transitioning to aerobic rice production in temperate regions and in enhancing the resilience of rice cultivation to climate change.

The sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in soil is suggested as an effective climate change mitigation strategy. Biochar application shows promise in this regard, while the role of fungi in soil carbon cycling and sequestration is also under investigation. Using a novel high-throughput plant phenomics approach, we explore the impact of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation and biochar application on wheat growth and soil carbon, guided by one of the leading global carbon credit schemes. Wheat was successfully colonised by AMF, achieving an average root length colonisation of 35.9%. We uncover an indirect fungal-mediated pathway to soil carbon sequestration, with mycorrhizal plants generating more biomass across all soil treatments without yield penalties, suggesting colonised plants deliver more plant derived carbon to the soil, potentially leading to long-term soil carbon gains. Conversely, fungal-driven carbon loss occurred, significantly reducing soil carbon accumulation in unamended soil, but not in biochar-amended soil, suggesting that biochar moderates fungal activity and positively impacts the soil carbon balance. While both biochar and AMF enhance plant growth, their direct effects on soil carbon are complex. Although biochar did not significantly increase soil carbon stocks beyond its own contribution, its ability to regulate fungal activity could play an important role in influencing soil carbon sequestration.

Myrteae is the most species-rich tribe in the Myrtaceae family, represented by a range of socioeconomically and ecologically significant species. Many of these species, including commercially relevant ones, have become increasingly threatened in the wild, and now require conservation actions. Tissue culture presents an appropriate in vitro tool to facilitate medium-term and long-term wild germplasm conservation, as well as for commercial propagation to maintain desirable traits of commercial cultivars. So far, tissue culture has not been extensively achieved for Myrteae. Here, tissue culture for Eugenia, one of the most species-rich genera in Myrteae, is reviewed, giving directions for other related Myrteae. This review also focuses on ex situ conservation of Australian Myrteae, including using seed banking and field banking. Despite some progress, challenges to conserve these species remain, mostly due to the increasing threats in the wild and limited research. Research into in vitro methods (tissue culture and cryopreservation) is paramount given that at least some of the species are ‘non-orthodox’. There is an urgent need to develop long-term in vitro conservation for capturing the remaining germplasm of threatened Myrteae.

Soil salinity is a major environmental stressor affecting agricultural productivity worldwide. Understanding plant responses to salt stress is crucial for developing resilient crop varieties. Wild relatives of cultivated crops, such as wild tomato, Solanum pimpinellifolium, can serve as a useful resource to further expand the resilience potential of the cultivated germplasm, S. lycopersicum. In this study, we employed high-throughput phenotyping in the greenhouse and field conditions to explore salt stress responses of a S. pimpinellifolium diversity panel. Our study revealed extensive phenotypic variations in response to salt stress, with traits such as transpiration rate, shoot mass, and ion accumulation showing significant correlations with plant performance. We found that while transpiration was a key determinant of plant performance in the greenhouse, shoot mass strongly correlated with yield under field conditions. Conversely, ion accumulation was the least influential factor under greenhouse conditions. Through a Genome Wide Association Study, we identified candidate genes not previously associated with salt stress, highlighting the power of high-throughput phenotyping in uncovering novel aspects of plant stress responses. This study contributes to our understanding of salt stress tolerance in S. pimpinellifolium and lays the groundwork for further investigations into the genetic basis of these traits, ultimately informing breeding efforts for salinity tolerance in tomato and other crops.

AbstractSoil salinity is a major environmental stressor affecting agricultural productivity worldwide. Understanding plant responses to salt stress is crucial for developing resilient crop varieties. Wild relatives of cultivated crops, such as wild tomato,Solanum pimpinellifolium, can serve as a useful resource to further expand the resilience potential of the cultivated germplasm,S. lycopersicum. In this study, we employed high-throughput phenotyping in the greenhouse and field conditions to explore salt stress responses of aS. pimpinellifoliumdiversity panel. Our study revealed extensive phenotypic variations in response to salt stress, with traits such as transpiration rate, shoot mass, and ion accumulation showing significant correlations with plant performance. We found that while transpiration was a key determinant of plant performance in the greenhouse, shoot mass strongly correlated with yield under field conditions. Conversely, ion accumulation was the least influential factor under greenhouse conditions. Through a Genome Wide Association Study, we identified candidate genes not previously associated with salt stress, highlighting the power of high-throughput phenotyping in uncovering novel aspects of plant stress responses. This study contributes to our understanding of salt stress tolerance inS. pimpinellifoliumand lays the groundwork for further investigations into the genetic basis of these traits, ultimately informing breeding efforts for salinity tolerance in tomato and other crops.

AimsMycorrhiza and rhizodeposition are important for nutrient and water uptake but their role under variable water conditions remains unclear. We investigated how mycorrhiza and rhizodeposition contributed to plant uptake of water, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in response to water availability and variability.MethodsTwo tomato genotypes (a mycorrhiza-defective tomato mutant, rmc, and its mycorrhizal wild-type progenitor, Solanum lycopersicum cv. Rio Grande 76R were grown in a greenhouse under different watering conditions (wet, medium, and dry conditions, and dry-rewet conditions).ResultsWe found that non-mycorrhizal plants were as successful as mycorrhizal plants in terms of N and water uptake under both reduced and variable water availability. However, we observed lower water use efficiency and shoot N recovery in mycorrhizal plants that could be driven by mycorrhizal requirements for water and N. Mycorrhizal plants were more extensively colonised and were more successful in taking up P under dry conditions compared to non-mycorrhizal plants. On the other hand, greater specific root exudation in non-mycorrhizal plants across all watering conditions resulted in relatively greater uptake of N than of P.ConclusionsA flexible carbon allocation towards mycorrhiza and root exudation may help plants in maintaining a balanced uptake of N and P under variable water conditions.

Ferumoxytol is a superparamagnetic iron oxide particle encapsulated by a semisynthetic carbohydrate with properties that can be used by the nephrologist for diagnosis and therapy. Ferumoxytol is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for treating iron deficiency anemia in the setting of chronic kidney disease, but not for clinical diagnostic imaging. It has gained appeal as a magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent in patients with estimated glomerular filtration rates < 30 mL/min/1.73 m2 in whom gadolinium-based contrast magnetic resonance imaging agents are relatively contraindicated because of the association with gadolinium deposition and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Ferumoxytol metabolism is not dependent on kidney function, but rather is removed from the circulation by the reticuloendothelial system of the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. Additionally, the prolonged intravascular half-life (>14 hours) of ferumoxytol allows for longer image acquisition and repeat imaging, if necessary. In patients with contraindications for gadolinium contrast agents, ferumoxytol is an alternative agent for vascular assessment, including patency and course.

Neptunia amplexicaulis is an herbaceous legume endemic to the Richmond area in central Queensland, Australia and is one of the strongest known Selenium hyperaccumulators on earth, showing significant potential to be utilised in Se phytoextraction applications. Here a protocol was established for in vitro micropropagation of Se hyperaccumulator N. amplexicaulis using nodal segments from in vitro-germinated seedlings. Shoot multiplication was achieved on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal media supplemented with various concentrations of 6-Benzylaminopurine (BA) (1.0, 2.0, 3.0 mg L-1) alone or in combination with low levels of Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) (0.1, 0.2, 0.3 mg L-1), with 2.0 mg L-1 BA + 0.2 mg L-1 NAA found to be most effective. Elongated shoots were rooted in vitro using NAA, with highest root induction rate of 30% observed at 0.2 mg L-1 NAA. About 95% of the in vitro rooted shoots survived acclimatization. Clonally propagated plantlets were dosed with selenate/selenite solution and assessed for Se tissue concentrations using Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and found to retain their ability to hyperaccumulate. The protocol developed for this study has potential to be optimised for generating clonal plants of N. amplexicaulis for use in research and phytoextraction industry applications.

The dimensions of the thoracic intervertebral foramen in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) have not previously been quantified. Better understanding of the dimensions of the foramen may be useful in surgical planning. This study describes a reproducible method for measurement of the thoracic foramen in AIS using computed tomography (CT).In 23 preoperative female patients with Lenke 1 type AIS with right-side convexity major curves confined to the thoracic spine the foraminal height (FH), foraminal width (FW), pedicle to superior articular process distance (P-SAP), and cross-sectional foraminal area (FA) were measured using multiplanar reconstructed CT. Measurements were made at entrance, midpoint, and exit of the thoracic foramina from T1–T2 to T11–T12. Results were also correlated with dependent variables of major curve Cobb angle measured on X-ray and CT, age, weight, Lenke classification subtype, Risser grade, and number of spinal levels in the major curve.The FH, FW, P-SAP, and FA dimensions and ratios are all significantly larger on the convexity of the major curve and maximal at or close to the apex. Mean thoracic foraminal dimensions change in a predictable manner relative to position on the major thoracic curve. There was no statistically significant correlation with the measured foraminal dimensions or ratios and the individual dependent variables. The average ratio of convexity to concavity dimensions at the apex foramina for entrance, midpoint, and exit, respectively, are FH (1.50, 1.38, 1.25), FW (1.28, 1.30, 0.98), FA (2.06, 1.84, 1.32), and P-SAP (1.61, 1.47, 1.30).Foraminal dimensions of the thoracic spine are significantly affected by AIS. Foraminal dimensions have a predictable convexity-to-concavity ratio relative to the proximity to the major curve apex. Surgeons should be aware of these anatomical differences during scoliosis correction surgery.

Successful use of hyperspectral imaging technology to progress precision agriculture is highly dependent on calibration on species of interest. To date, high-throughput hyperspectral imaging to predict plant growth and nutrient content has largely been limited to single-species cultivations. Therefore, this study aimed to calibrate a range of agronomic traits in mixed cultivations to hyperspectral image data. It successfully demonstrated that hyperspectral imaging can predict the plant traits biomass (g), foliar nitrogen (N) concentration (mg g−1) and N yield (mg), in grass and legume monocultures and polycultures in response to differential N and phosphorus (P) fertilization in a controlled greenhouse experiment. Visible light and near infrared (VNIR) and short wavelength infrared (SWIR) input resulted in only minor image misclassification (0.02%) for the green plants from the background regardless of species. The trained partial least square regression (PLSR) models VNIR-HH (hyper-hue) and SWIR had the lowest misclassification errors of 3.16% and 9.56% and were used for the grass–legume classification. For grass, there was good agreement between the mixed-effect models derived from the laboratory, and the PLSR models from hyperspectral measurements, except for the effect of N × P on N yield. Legume model agreement was not as precise as grass, likely because fertilizer-driven treatment effects on the measured traits were not as clear. Key wavelengths contributing to the strength of the PLSR models for predicting N content and biomass were identified from this study. Effective calibration of growth and nutrient uptake traits against hyperspectral data in mixed cultivations under controlled conditions is an important contribution towards improving remote sensing technologies for broader application in polyculture field cropping.

Background and Aims Predicted impacts of climate change-increased temperature, decreased rainfall, and reduced water availability-are expected to increase irrigation-related salinity in Australia's major wine regions. Breeding of new abiotic stress-tolerant rootstocks will help to mitigate these effects on viticulture. Here, we investigated the impact of elevated temperature on key salt tolerance traits of two contrasting rootstocks and a population of experimental rootstock hybrids. Methods and Results A high-throughput facility was used to phenotype the rootstocks, K51-40, 140 Ruggeri and 68 K51-40 derived hybrids, all ungrafted, under factorial salinity and temperature treatments. Elevated temperature led to increased chloride concentration in the mature laminae of most genotypes, likely driven by increased transpiration, with large differences between genotypes in the extent of the temperature response. Genetic differences were also observed for the influence of temperature on laminae sodium accumulation. Growth rate response to salinity was variable between genotypes and was independent of laminae chloride and sodium accumulation. Conclusions High-throughput phenomics provides a promising tool to simultaneously assess new rootstock selections for ion exclusion and growth rate response under abiotic stresses. Significance of the Study Understanding the effect of temperature on salinity tolerance traits, and the development of novel screening tools, will help breed new rootstocks better suited to a hotter and drier future climate.

Salinity tolerance-associated phenotypes of 35 EMS mutagenized wheat lines originating from BARI Gom-25 were compared. Vegetative growth was measured using non-destructive image-based phenotyping. Five different NaCl concentrations (0 to 160 mM) were applied to plants 19 days after planting (DAP 19), and plants were imaged daily until DAP 38. Plant growth, water use, leaf Na+, K+ and Cl− content, and thousand kernel weight (TKW) were measured, and six lines were selected for further analysis. In saline conditions, leaf Na+, K+, and Cl− content variation on a dry weight basis within these six lines were ~9.3, 1.4, and 2.4-fold, respectively. Relative to BARI Gom-25, two (OA6, OA62) lines had greater K+ accumulation, three (OA6, OA10, OA62) had 50–75% lower Na+:K+ ratios, and OA62 had ~30% greater water-use index (WUI). OA23 had ~2.2-fold greater leaf Na+ and maintained TKW relative to BARI Gom-25. Two lines (OA25, OA52) had greater TKW than BARI Gom-25 when grown in 120 mM NaCl but similar Na+:K+, WUI, and biomass accumulation. OA6 had relatively high TKW, high leaf K+, and WUI, and low leaf Na+ and Cl−. Phenotypic variation revealed differing associations between the parameters measured in the lines. Future identification of the genetic basis of these differences, and crossing of lines with phenotypes of interest, is expected to enable the assessment of which combinations of parameters deliver the greatest improvement in salinity tolerance.

Wheat productivity is severely reduced by high temperatures. Breeding of heat tolerant cultivars can be achieved by identifying genes controlling physiological and agronomical traits with high temperature and using these to select superior genotypes, but no gene underlying genetic variation for heat tolerance has previously been described. We completed the positional cloning of qYDH.3BL , a quantitative trait locus (QTL) on bread wheat chromosome 3B associated with increased yield in hot and dry climates. The delimited genomic region contained 12 putative genes and a sequence variant in the promoter region of one gene - seven in absentia, TaSINA . This was associated with the QTL’s effects on early vigour, plant biomass and yield components in two distinct wheat populations grown under various growth conditions. Near isogenic lines carrying the positive allele at qYDH.3BL under-expressed TaSINA and had increased vigour and water use efficiency early in development, as well as increased biomass, grain number and grain weight following heat stress. A survey of worldwide distribution indicated that the positive allele became widespread from the 1950s through the CIMMYT wheat breeding programme but, to date, has been selected only in breeding programmes in Mexico and Australia. Significance statement Wheat is the world’s most widely grown crop and a staple of human diet. Even brief episodes of high temperature in the growing season cause severe yield reductions. Finding and deploying genes for heat stress tolerance in new varieties is a priority for food security with climate change. We narrowed a genetic locus to a small genomic region where genetic variation was present only in one gene that showed clear differences of expression and improved yield and physiology under stress in the populations. Using diagnostic markers to track the positive haplotype in nearly 750 accessions, we found many regions where the allele could be used in breeding programmes to increase wheat’s heat tolerance.

Recent development and implementation of crop cryopreservation protocols has increased the capacity to maintain recalcitrant seeded germplasm collections via cryopreserved in vitro material. To preserve the greatest possible plant genetic resources globally for future food security and breeding programs, it is essential to integrate in situ and ex situ conservation methods into a cohesive conservation plan. In vitro storage using tissue culture and cryopreservation techniques offers promising complementary tools that can be used to promote this approach. These techniques can be employed for crops difficult or impossible to maintain in seed banks for long-term conservation. This includes woody perennial plants, recalcitrant seed crops or crops with no seeds at all and vegetatively or clonally propagated crops where seeds are not true-to-type. Many of the world's most important crops for food, nutrition and livelihoods, are vegetatively propagated or have recalcitrant seeds. This review will look at ex situ conservation, namely field repositories and in vitro storage for some of these economically important crops, focusing on conservation strategies for avocado. To date, cultivar-specific multiplication protocols have been established for maintaining multiple avocado cultivars in tissue culture. Cryopreservation of avocado somatic embryos and somatic embryogenesis have been successful. In addition, a shoot-tip cryopreservation protocol has been developed for cryo-storage and regeneration of true-to-type clonal avocado plants.