Objectification theory is increasingly used to explain the body image-related experiences of men because research indicates that men are at heightened risk for body image concerns because of sociocultural messages regarding appearance of the male body. Although researchers have explored body image concerns among men, it is important to understand various sociocultural correlates relating to their body image disturbances. Therefore, we introduced gender role conflict in the present study to better explain their drive for muscularity. Based on data from 473 heterosexual men in the United States, the proposed model demonstrated excellent data fit, although several of the paths were non-significant, suggesting mixed support for the utility of objectification theory in the context of men’s body image. Specifically, sexual objectification experiences did not uniquely predict self-objectification and body surveillance—key internalizing variables in the objectification theory framework—and these variables had multiple non-significant relationships with additional hypothesized variables. However, gender role conflict was significantly related to objectification theory variables, suggesting the importance of attending to this variable when understanding heterosexual men’s body image disturbances. A more parsimonious model—with non-significant paths removed—was also explored and demonstrated excellent data fit. Limitations, future areas of research, and practice implications are discussed.

In this qualitative study, we explored the religious and spiritual beliefs of women in the National Guard, the role of religion in their lives, and the effect of deployment and reintegration on women’s belief systems. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 39 women service members who had been deployed. Results of the content analysis revealed five themes: (1) Religious Identity/Belief in God, (2) Religion/Spirituality has a Positive Impact, (3) Religious Activities, (4) Religiosity and Deployment, and (5) Religiosity/Spiritual Experiences Change over Time. Implications for future research and the incorporation of faith-based practices with women service members who may seek mental health treatment are discussed.

In this review, we examine current literature on binegative attitudes and stereotypes that affect bisexual people in relationships, bisexual people's engagement in mixed orientation relationships, and their experiences of monogamy and consensual non-monogamy. Despite systemic barriers that can pose a negative impact on the relationships of bisexual people, we also conclude that bisexual individuals have the capacity to experience positive relationship outcomes in both same-gender and different-gender relationships.

Fredrickson and Roberts ( 1997 ) asserted that sexual objectification experiences are likely related to women’s physical safety anxiety; however, to date, very few studies have examined this relationship. Using a sample of 228 U.S. undergraduate women ( n = 133 Black/African American; n = 95 White) from a Southeastern university, this study explored the relationships among sexual objectification experiences, physical safety concerns (i.e., perceived risk of crime, fear of crime, and fear of rape), and overall psychological distress. Findings revealed that Black/African American women reported more sexual objectification experiences and fear of crime than White women. Results of a measured variable path analysis suggested that perceived risk of crime fully mediated the relationships between sexual objectification experiences and fear of crime for both groups of women. Moreover, perceived risk of crime fully mediated the relationship between sexual objectification experiences and psychological distress for Black/African American women, but not White women. For White women only, fear of rape partially mediated the relationship between perceived risk of crime and fear of crime, and perceived risk of crime fully mediated the relationship between sexual objectification experiences and fear of rape. Taken together, the results suggest that a sociocultural context that objectifies women and their bodies is related to their sense of safety and security in the world.

Objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) is increasingly used to explain the body image-related experiences of men, as research indicates that men are at heightened risk for body image concerns because of sociocultural messages regarding appearance of the male body. However, objectification theory researchers have previously discussed the experiences of men without modifying the theory to consider factors unique to why men are also at risk for sexual objectification and the internalization process that ensues. Gender role conflict is introduced in the present study to better explain the objectification experiences of men. Results of a path analysis were that gender role conflict and sexual objectification experiences were predictive of drive for muscularity through a series of direct and indirect relationships including internalization of cultural standards of appearance, selfobjectification, body surveillance, and body shame. However, results also suggested that the internalization process that men experience in the context of sexual objectification is iv different than the process experience by women. It also appeared that the sexual objectification men experience promotes a drive for muscularity, which provides men with a sense of masculine agency.

Using a within-participants experimental design, the psychophysiological impact of objectified versus non-objectified clothing conditions in a sample of college women (n = 28) was examined. Participants showed significantly lower mean heart rate (HR) in the objectified compared to the non-objectified condition within the first 6 seconds of stimulus onset, indicative of an orienting response (OR). The effect persisted at 5 minutes and did not vary as a function of trait self-objectification. Results further inform objectification theory, suggesting a psychophysiological mechanism that may explain reduced cognitive processing in objectified states. A secondary aim was to examine prospective predictors of clothing-related distress. Weight, thin-ideal internalization, social comparison, and trait self-objectification predicted negative affect, state anxiety, and body preferences following clothing conditions but not HR changes from objectified to non-objectified conditions. Partial regression coefficients suggest maladaptive social comparison predicted negative affect, state anxiety, and a smaller preferred body type following clothing try on. Results suggest maladaptive social comparison may play an important role in clothing-related distress. Findings provide further support for social ranking theory.

Body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptomatology were examined in bisexual individuals ( n = 139 women, n = 37 men) and compared to lesbian/gay ( n = 51 women, n = 96 men) and heterosexual individuals ( n = 82 women, n = 34 men) in a U.S. online sample. Age, body mass index (BMI), income, and exercise frequency served as covariates. MANCOVA results showed a significant gender by sexual orientation interaction and significant main effects of gender and sexuality. Univariate tests were used to explore multivariate results. ANCOVA results for body dissatisfaction showed a significant gender by sexual orientation interaction. Post-hoc comparisons revealed higher levels of body dissatisfaction among all groups compared to heterosexual men. ANCOVA results for eating disorder symptomatology showed a significant main effect of sexual orientation. Post-hoc comparisons revealed higher levels of eating disorder symptoms among bisexual compared to heterosexual individuals. For bisexual men, gay community involvement, maladaptive social comparison, drive for muscularity, self-esteem, gender role orientation, and body dissatisfaction were explored as predictors of eating disorder symptomatology while controlling for age, BMI, exercise frequency, and income in a hierarchical regression analysis. The same factors, minus body dissatisfaction, were explored as predictors of body dissatisfaction in bisexual men. For bisexual women, similar factors, with the exception of drive for muscularity, were explored. Drive for muscularity predicted body dissatisfaction and exercise frequency predicted eating disorder symptomatology in bisexual men. BMI and self-esteem predicted body dissatisfaction in bisexual women; gay community involvement and body dissatisfaction predicted eating disorder symptomatology.

Existing literature fails to comprehensively identify factors contributing to the comorbid relationship between eating disorder (ED) behaviors and unipolar depression. Maladaptive social comparison, body dissatisfaction, and low self-esteem are disruptive psychological patterns common to both constructs. It is unclear whether a unique relationship exists between depression and eating disorder behaviors beyond the effects exerted by this negative cognitive triad. The purpose of the present study is to examine whether a unique relationship exists between depression and ED behaviors after controlling for maladaptive social comparison, body dissatisfaction, and low self-esteem. We predict minimal unique variance in ED behaviors will be explained by depression after controlling for this negative cognitive triad.

The purpose of the present study was to examine depressive symptoms as a function of eating disorder (ED) diagnostic status and gender. A demographic questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck, Steer & Brown, 1996 Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A. and Brown, G. K. 1996. Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory, 2nd, San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation. [Google Scholar]), and the Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnoses (Q-EDD; Mintz, O'Halloran, Mulholland & Schneider, 1997 Mintz, L. B., O'Halloran, M. S, Mulholland, A. M. and Schneider, P. A. 1997. Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnoses: Reliability and validity of operationalizing DSM–IV criteria into a self-report format: Correction. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44: 63–79. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) were administered to a nonclinical sample of college-aged men (n = 115) and women (n = 136). Contrast tests revealed significant differences in mean BDI-II scores as a function of Q-EDD diagnostic status. This effect did not differ as a function of gender and the pattern was the same for both cognitive and somatic-affective depressive symptoms. The nature of the comorbid relationship between ED and depressive symptoms appears markedly similar across both genders.

This pilot study examines the relationship between eating disorder behaviors and autonomic dysfunction in a nonclinical sample (n = 27). Baseline indices of eating disorder behaviors were evaluated via the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire. Supine resting heart rate variability was assessed via electrocardiogram for a 5-min recording period. A spectral analysis was performed. High frequency power density (s2/Hz) increased as a function of heightened disordered eating behaviors. Autonomic dysfunction, as indicated by increased high frequency power density due to hypervagal activity, is associated with eating disorder behaviors. Results suggest autonomic dysfunction may exist in nonclinical eating disorder populations. Future research needs to further examine this possibility.