This paper discusses the place of genetics in thecontext of scientific literacy and the school science curriculum. It then goes on to report on the work of a three year research project which seeks to document the understanding of genetics, and of modern genetic technologies, and opinions of these technologies among 15-16 years olds in England. Four aspects of the work will be reported on here. These are concerned with understanding the genetics of cells, the universality of genetic information among living things, and gene technology, and with opinions on the advisability of prenatal screening for cystic fibrosis. The implications for the school curriculum and for teaching are then discussed. The authors are grateful to the Wellcome Trust for their support in enabling this research.

The effect of the incorporation of Zn-phthalocyanines (ZnPc) nanoparticles into polyaniline coating (PANI) forming a new nanocomposite polyaniline/Zn-phthalocyanines ([email protected]) on the Zn-air battery performance has been investigated. The anticorrosion activity of the [email protected] coating is evaluated by the polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements. The results reveal that, the [email protected] nanocomposite gives a higher protective performance (97.7%) than the neat PANI (74.8%). The incorporation of ZnPc particles into PANI matrix is responsible for the increase in the coating resistance and AC conductivity. [email protected] nanocomposite delivers a high specific discharge capacity (713 mAh g-1) and enhances the capacity retention up to 98.5%. Therefore, Zn electrode coated with [email protected] can improve Zn-Air battery performance to a high extent, which may be beneficial for energy applications.

This paper presents further findings from a study of young people's understanding of genetics towards the end of their compulsory science education. It focuses on the ability of these students to distinguish between genes and genetic information and the extent to which they are aware of the continuity of genetic information between cells within one individual. Many students hold the misconception that cells of different types will contain different genetic information because they have different functions and will therefore require different information. Confused, conflicting, and uncertain reasoning is also common. The implications of these findings in terms of understanding cell division are considered.

This paper reports on small group discussions on cellular genetics by 15 - 16 year old British students (n = 35), led by a researcher. The results support and expand on findings from written tasks reported elsewhere and throw new light on students' understanding of basic genetics. The findings demonstrate widespread confusion over the nature of genetic information in cells, and the mechanism by which genetic information is transferred from one cell to another and between generations. Implications for the curriculum and for teaching are discussed.

This paper considers school students' understanding of the processes of cell division and fertilisation towards the end of their compulsory science education. The difficulties which students have in understanding the purposes and products of these processes are discussed, and the origins of some of these problems are identified. In particular, it notes the widespread lack of understanding of the physical link between chromosomes and genetic material, and the relationship between the behaviour of chromosomes at cell division and the continuity of genetic information - both within and between organisms.

With rapid developments in genetic screening there has been increasing concern about the poor level of understanding of inheritance within the general population. In 1989 a national-curriculum was introduced in England and Wales for all students up to the age of 16. This study investigated the knowledge and understanding of genetics amongst 482 students nearing the end of compulsory education. Data were collected using written questions and small group discussions. Findings showed a poor understanding of the processes by which genetic information is transferred and a lack of basic knowledge about the structures involved (gene, chromosome, cell). Few 'alternative conceptions' were identified. Instead there appeared to be widespread uncertainty and confusion. The current approach to science education, as reflected in these findings, does not appear to provide an effective preparation for students - either for future training as scientists or for interactions with science in their personal life.

This paper reports on young people's understanding of genes as they near the end of their compulsory science education in the UK. A sample of 482 school students aged 14–16, drawn from across the ability range, took part in this study. Findings, based mainly on written responses to written questions, but supported by interview data, show that this sample had only a very limited understanding of the most basic ideas relating to function, structure, and location of genes. It is argued that these findings are not atypical for this population of school students. The implications for teaching the more complex genetic concepts demanded by the National Curriculum —genetic engineering, for example — are considered.

This paper reports some of the findings from a study of the ecological understandings of children aged 5-16 years in schools in the north of England. Children's ideas about selected ecological concepts were elicited through a series of written tasks and individual interviews set in a range of Contexts, referred to here as probes. Responses of about 200 pupils, across the age range, were obtained on each probe. In this paper pupils' ideas related to the cycling of matter between organisms, and between organisms and the abiotic environment in which they live, are presented and discussed. The design and methodology of the study were reported earlier (Leach et al. in press a) while a subsequent paper will discuss the children's ideas relating to other aspects of the interdependency of organisms in ecosystems (Leach et al. in press b).

This paper reports some of the findings from a study of the ecological understandings of children aged 5-16 years in schools in the north of England. Children's ideas about selected ecological concepts were elicited through a series of written tasks and individual interviews set in a range of contexts, referred to here as probes. Responses of about 200 pupils, across the age range, were obtained on each probe. In this paper the ideas related to the interdependency of organisms in ecosystems are presented and discussed. The design and methodology of the study (Leach et al. 1995), and children's ideas related to the cycling of matter between organisms, and between organisms and the abiotic environment (Leach et al. 1996), have already been reported.

This paper provides an introduction to a study of the ecological understandings of children aged 5-16 years in schools in the north of England. Children's ideas about selected ecological concepts were elicited through a series of written tasks and individual interviews set in a range of contexts, referred to here as probes. Responses of about 200 pupils, across the age range, were obtained on each probe. In this paper, issues relating to theoretical background, design and methodology are outlined. Two further papers present the major findings of the study: the first reports children's ideas about the cycling of matter between organisms and between organisms and the abiotic environment (Leach et al. in press a); the second reports children's ideas about the interdependency of organisms in ecosystems (Leach st al. in press b).

(1994). Young People's understanding of science concepts: implications of cross-age studies for curriculum planning. Studies in Science Education: Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 75-100.

(1994). Young People's Ideas about Inheritance and Evolution. Studies in Science Education: Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 29-47.

Results of an interview study with eighty-four secondary school students indicate that children's theories about inheritance may he well-developed and coherent (though many do not conform to accepted scientific theory) before the topic is taught in school biology. The research alerts teachers to a number of commonly held viewpoints—for example intra-specific variation is often explained in terms of developmental defects, many students believe that acquired characteristics are inherited, and many also appear not to understand the equality of parental gene contribution or the mechanism of inheritance generally. Although the results suggest some improvement in understanding with age, especially between 14 and 16 years, several alternative viewpoints persisted in the older age groups. The authors discuss the implications of the work for biology teachers and suggest that more emphasis be given in lower secondary courses to the significance of genetics to life in general and to man in particular. Links between existing knowledge of familiar instances of inheritance and more technical aspects of genetics will, it is proposed, be important in future learning.

This article reports an interview study with 84 students aged 12–16 years designed to document their understanding of biological adaptation. Analysis of transcripts suggests that secondary students find this subject area difficult and that many explain adaptation in teleological and anthropomorphic terms. Separate analysis of results from students of different ages indicated little progress in understanding from 12 to 14 years, but noticeable improvement by 16 years. Nevertheless, several alternative frameworks persisted in the older age group. Some possible implications for teachers are discussed. Since there is evidence that students come to formal teaching oj adaptation with a range of ideas, it is suggested that much more attention should be given to these in the laboratory. The authors propose that study of the historical development of thought on evolutionary processes may be a helpful strategy and that some teaching on the subject might usefully take place before its traditional place in the fifth year. Finally it is suggested that opportunities should be created for students and teachers to explore alternative perspectives in small-group and class discussion.

"How many experimental conclusions are a ‘con’?." Journal of Biological Education, 18(1), pp. 1–2