Moral injury, arising from perceived violations of deeply held moral beliefs, is a significant risk factor for suicidality among veterans. Consistent with the buffering hypothesis, factors associated with social well-being may attenuate this relationship. This study tested whether two facets of social well-being, specifically social integration (i.e., feeling connected) and social contribution (i.e., believing one's actions matter), combine to moderate the moral injury-suicidality relationship. Using data previously collected from 1469 veterans who participated in the Military Mental Health and Well-being Project, a moderated-moderation regression analysis revealed a significant three-way interaction: the moral injury-suicidality link was strongest when both social integration and social contribution were low and weakest when both social integration and social contribution were high. Supplemental analyses using each of the four suicidality items as a separate outcome showed a highly consistent buffering pattern across lifetime ideation/attempt history, past-year ideation, suicide communications, and anticipated future suicide risk. Findings suggest that social integration and social contribution may represent promising targets for intervention research aimed at reducing suicidality among veterans experiencing symptoms of moral injury.

We argue that there is a fundamental motivation to have one’s life be ‘well-tuned’ to reality, and that this motivation, when successfully achieved, corresponds to a distinct psychological experience. This experience, which we call Life Attunement Experience (LAE), represents a chronic combination of feeling as though one’s life is both “right” and “effective” and has implications for well-being and prosocial behavior. Across five studies, we demonstrate that a measure of LAE explains the relationship between life circumstances indicating successful attunement (higher income, employment, organizational fit, job satisfaction) and general measures of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Furthermore, in three studies, we show that LAE has a distinct relationship to prosocial behavior—including objective behavior observed by others—underscoring the importance of this relational element for understanding the truth of a life. These studies combine to provide evidence for LAE’s importance to researchers of motivation in the domains of well-being, morality, and organizational behavior.

OBJECTIVE:Although research has been conducted on the influence of coping strategies on mental health, research has not investigated the relationships among moral context, the adoption of those strategies, and mental health outcomes. DESIGN:Studies were designed to measure the effects of moral context (specifically, moral injury and ethical leadership) on the adoption of adaptive or maladaptive coping strategies and their subsequent mental health consequences. METHOD:Data was collected on 551 total military personnel, spanning two distinct survey administrations, who reported at least one combat deployment. RESULTS:Findings suggest that ethical leadership is associated with greater adaptive coping strategy adoption, while potentially morally injurious events (particularly self-transgression) are associated with greater maladaptive coping strategy adoption. Mediation analysis demonstrated that a significant portion of the effect of self-transgression on depression (95% CI [0.003, 0.038]) and anxiety (95% CI [0.004, 0.066]) is attributable to its attendant increase in maladaptive coping strategy adoption. CONCLUSIONS:This research suggests that moral context can lead to differential adoption of adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies. It also suggests that maladaptive coping strategies can account for a portion of the effect of self-transgression moral injury on depression and anxiety.

Suicide is one of the leading causes of death among military personnel, and help‐seeking is crucial to combating it. Research has not yet investigated the role that potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs), particularly betrayal, may play in moderating the effect of battlefield experiences on these variables. Data from 694 U.S. Army personnel, all of whom had at least one combat deployment, were analyzed to examine battlefield life‐threatening experiences (LTEs), suicidal ideation, help‐seeking behavior, PMIEs, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and aggression. Analyses revealed a significant interaction between LTEs and betrayal‐type PMIEs predicting both a higher likelihood of suicidal thoughts and planning, relative risk ratio = 1.729, z = 2.13, p = .034, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.043, 2.863], and help‐seeking from fewer sources, incident rate ratio = 0.927, z = −2.26, p = .024, 95% CI = [0.868, 0.990]. These effects held even when controlling for depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, PTSD symptoms, and aggression. The findings suggest that betrayal‐type PMIEs have a significant moderating effect on the impact of LTEs on suicidal ideation and help‐seeking behavior, and this effect cannot be explained by the experience of the other four measured symptoms of psychological distress.

Exposure to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs) is a pervasive threat for military service members and may be associated with symptoms of anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation. However, coping mechanisms, such as mindfulness, may ameliorate symptoms and improve recovery. Two studies were conducted to test dispositional mindfulness as a moderator of the links between PMIEs, as assessed using the Moral Injury Events Scale (i.e., total score and Self-Transgression, Other-Transgression, and Betrayal subscale scores), and symptoms of anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation among different samples of active-duty soldiers in garrison. In Sample 1 (N = 310), mindfulness buffered the links between PMIE exposure and symptoms of both anxiety, ∆R2 = .02, and depression, ∆R2 = .03. In Sample 2 (N = 669), mindfulness moderated the link between the MIES Betrayal subscale and anxiety symptoms, ∆R2 = .01. The results suggest that dispositional mindfulness may be a protective factor against some of the negative impacts of PMIE exposure. Further implications are discussed.

Shared reality—the experience of sharing common inner states (e.g. feelings, beliefs) with other people about a given topic or target—is a ubiquitous human experience. With research on the construct of shared reality burgeoning in various domains, we examined a fundamental, yet understudied topic: the role of experiencing shared reality about a target in real‐time conversations and real‐world contexts. Across five studies conducted in various contexts (total N = 973), we developed a measure of target‐specific shared reality (SR‐T) and examined its role in interpersonal interactions and protective health behaviours. In our initial Studies (1a‐2), we developed a measure of SR‐T and establish psychometric, construct and criterion validity. In Study 3, we established predictive validity by investigating the link between SR‐T and important interpersonal interaction constructs (e.g. interpersonal rapport and epistemic trust in the partner). In Study 4 (preregistered), SR‐T moderated the effect of close others’ attitudes on vaccination and precautionary behaviours against COVID‐19 during the Omicron‐variant peak (2022). Our findings suggest that the experience of SR‐T, assessed with a valid measure, is linked to important dimensions of interpersonal interactions and health decisions in the real world.

Objective: Although research has been conducted in the last decade distinguishing between meaning in life and life satisfaction, no research has examined whether their potential moderating role in mental health problems is distinct. Among military personnel, mental health is paramount, and suicide is one of the leading causes of death. Method: Data were collected to determine the potential moderating effects of meaning in life and/or life satisfaction of battlefield experiences on depression, anxiety, and thoughts about death (including suicidal ideation). Data were collected on 851 total military personnel, spanning two distinct survey administrations, who reported at least one combat deployment. Results: Findings suggest that meaning in life has a significant moderating effect on the impact of life-threatening experiences on anxiety and thoughts about death (including suicidal ideation), but no moderating effect on depression. Life satisfaction had no significant moderating role for any mental health outcome. Conclusions: This research suggests that meaning in life is a significant buffer against certain negative mental health outcomes stemming from life-threatening experiences.

Research focusing on motivation has consistently identified changes in motivational emphases as individuals age. However, whether these same patterns exist with respect to more domain-general conceptualizations of these motives has not yet been examined. Furthermore, researchers have not determined whether these differences in motivations across age groups are associated with differences in different measures of well-being. Using three cross-sectional samples, we examine the relative importance individuals place on different motivational domains across different age groups. In Studies 1a and 1b, we show that age is negatively associated with growth motive importance, but is unassociated with security, control, or epistemic motive importance. In Study 2, we show that older adults who do not show this de-emphasis of growth motives have significantly lower life satisfaction and lower self-reported flourishing relative to those older adults who do demonstrate the typical reduced emphasis. Implications for these findings for happiness across age groups are discussed.

Recent research on moral dilemmas has delineated preferences for utilitarian vs. deontological judgments along three parameters: sensitivity to consequences, sensitivity to norms, and general preferences for inaction (Gawronski et al., 2017; Körner, et al., 2020). However, research has not yet determined whether motivational differences contribute to these three parameters in moral judgment. Across two studies, using regulatory mode theory, we demonstrate that a motivation to initiate and sustain smooth movement (locomotion), independent of a motive to engage in critical evaluation and reflection (assessment), is associated with greater sensitivity to norms in moral judgments. We demonstrate this association through both a chronic measure of individual differences (Study 1), and through a preregistered experimental induction (Study 2). Implications of our findings for moral judgment and motivation are discussed.

Research on regulatory focus and morality has largely focused on judgments or discrete behaviors in the laboratory, leaving the relationship between the promotion and prevention focus and actual long-term ethical and unethical behavior relatively unexamined. In our study, we explored the role of regulatory focus on desired and undesired behaviors in an ethically charged organizational context: the United States Military Academy. Specifically, we examined the relationship between regulatory focus and over two years of observed behavioral conduct. Across this time period, the promotion focus was associated with higher frequencies of observed ethical behavior, with no relationship to observed unethical behavior. In contrast, the prevention focus was associated with both higher levels of observed ethical behavior and lower levels of observed unethical behavior. The theoretical implications of these findings for regulatory focus and morality are discussed.

Moral psychology is used to explore the interaction between regulatory mode (locomotion; assessment) and diurnal preference (“early birds”; “night owls”). Moral and immoral behavior was partly explained by an interaction between regulatory mode and the time of day the task took place. In Studies 1a and 1b, we established a relation between self-reported diurnal preference and regulatory mode using both a chronic measure and an induction: stronger locomotion preferring an earlier time of day; stronger assessment preferring a later time of day. In Study 2, we show that those with a locomotion predominance were less likely to invest in a public good later in the day compared to those with an assessment predominance. Lastly, in Study 3, those induced into an assessment mode were more likely to cheat when randomly assigned to complete a task in the morning compared to those induced into a locomotion mode.

In three preregistered studies, we investigated whether positive and negative organ donation attitudes, intentions, as well as general prosocial behavioral intentions, could be influenced by inducing motivational harmony-the sense that things are going well in life. In Study 1, we examined correlations between motivational harmony, organ donation attitudes, intentions, and prosocial behavioral intentions. Study 2a represented an attempt to assess the malleability of motivational harmony using two different autobiographical recall tasks. The successful induction was utilized in Study 2b, designed to assess whether increasing motivational harmony caused changes in organ donation attitudes, intentions, and prosocial behavioral intentions. This study used a Solomon post-group design, where participants were randomly assigned to receive the scale assessing the proposed mediator (i.e., motivational harmony) or to receive the dependent variables directly after receiving the induction. These studies focused on attitudes and intentions to register oneself as an organ donor after death. Although no direct effects on donor outcomes were identified, the motivational harmony induction task indirectly increased organ donation registration intentions through increased motivational harmony. Moreover, there was both a direct relationship of the motivational harmony induction on prosocial behavior intentions and an indirect association through increased motivational harmony. These findings have theoretical implications for the construct of motivational harmony, as well as practical applications for the promotion of organ donation and prosocial behavior.

AbstractThis article reviews the current state of the regulatory focus literature as it relates to consumer behavior, with a special emphasis on the goal pursuit processes that naturally align with the promotion and prevention systems. Because most research on such processes has taken place within the framework of regulatory fit theory, we highlight regulatory fit findings. We also suggest practical implications of these goal pursuit processes for marketing and branding. We then shift our attention to the standards that people use to evaluate their goal pursuit processes and examine how these standards and their use might differ with respect to regulatory focus. Finally, we share a new line of work on regulatory focus‐specific goal pursuit processes and describe avenues for future research.

This chapter explores the motivational dynamics of the promotion and prevention systems outlined in regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997). It includes a review of the core tenets of the theory—identifying and responding to important and frequently asked questions—in discussing significant research of the past two decades since the theory made its debut. In particular, the chapter includes a discussion of what defines each system, how regulatory focus orientations are commonly measured and manipulated, what differentiates promotion and prevention motivation from approach and avoidance motivation, what characterizes the trade-offs of each system, and newer developments in research on regulatory fit, group dynamics, and motivational flexibility. Throughout, avenues for future research are suggested.

Insights concerning “balance” in health and well-being have been influential throughout history. In this article, we explore how the ancient notion of “temperament” contains a number of similarities to orientation theories in motivation science (i.e., regulatory focus theory and regulatory mode theory) and how the related notion of a “proper mix” of personality dynamics has substantial grounding in recent empirical findings. In particular, we consider the processes related to goal pursuit through the lens of such a “proper mix” of motivational orientations, noting the various downsides from which individuals may suffer if any of their motivational orientations go unchecked. When a single motivational orientation dominates the other orientations, the goal pursuit process will be compromised with ineffective methods and suboptimal outcomes. We discuss recommendations for addressing such imbalances based on the existing literature and discuss additional avenues for future research.

Approach motivation (striving for desired end-states, eagerly focusing on where one wants to be) is often held up as the best type of motivation: It feels good and is associated with many positive outcomes. Indeed, a common perception is that regulation in terms of approach motivation is almost always better than regulation in terms of avoidance motivation. However, as we discuss, this conclusion is worthy of a deeper look. We consider how approach and avoidance motivation manifest at different levels in a self-regulatory hierarchy and how this can help us understand the upsides and downsides of both approach and avoidance motivation. In other words, approach motivation is not always beneficial and avoidance motivation is not always problematic. Understanding these trade-offs involves a consideration of which level in the hierarchy approach or avoidance is manifested, what types of outcomes are being examined (the experience of regulation vs. performance), and how the approach or avoidance regulation fits or does not fit with an individual's broad concerns or specific situational demands. Furthermore, a hierarchical approach helps make sense of behaviors that reflect simultaneous approach and avoidance tendencies, such as tactical approach to remove (avoid) a threat, providing a dynamic and nuanced view of motivation.

Research methodology The case was created via an interview of the protagonist in 2018 at the US Military Academy by the authors. Case overview/synopsis The case describes the dilemma First Lieutenant Williams faces when his platoon sergeant unexpectedly leaves. Organizational norms and accepted practices suggest Lieutenant Williams should choose the most senior squad leader, Staff Sergeant Boyer. The departing Platoon Sergeant even recommended Staff Sergeant Boyer. However, based on recent observations, Lieutenant Williams felt Staff Sergeant Boyer may not be the best fit. Instead, the lieutenant considered choosing the newest squad leader, Staff Sergeant Harrison, who seemed to be highly proficient, but had yet to prove himself. Before the lieutenant could fully weight his options, Staff Sergeant Boyer confronted him about a decision. Complexity academic level This case is designed for use in undergraduate courses on leadership and management. The case was not only designed primarily for teaching a lesson on organizational justice, but can also be used to integrate lessons on communication, power and influence, and decision making. Each of these elements is present in the case. The instructor can choose to incorporate them into the lesson for a more wholly encompassing lesson or choose to focus on only the organizational justice aspects at play in the case.

Many researchers in moral psychology approach the topic of moral judgment in terms of value-assessing outcomes of behaviors as either harmful or helpful, which makes the behaviors wrong or right, respectively. However, recent advances in motivation science suggest that other motives may be at work as well-namely truth (wanting to establish what is real) and control (wanting to manage what happens). In this review, we argue that the epistemic experiences of observers of (im)moral behaviors, and the perceived epistemic experiences of those observed, serve as a groundwork for understanding how truth and control motives are implicated in the moral judgment process. We also discuss relations between this framework and recent work from across the field of moral psychology, as well as implications for future research.

Recent research in moral psychology has highlighted how the current internal states of observers can influence their moral judgments of others' actions. In this article, we argue that an important internal state that serves such a function is the sense of control one has over one's own actions. Across four studies, we show that an individual's own current sense of control is positively associated with the intensity of moral judgments of the actions of others. We also show that this effect extends not only to judgments of rightness and wrongness (Study 1), but also to assignments of reward and punishment (Study 2). Finally, we demonstrate that this effect is based on the current experience of control by showing a moderation of the effect via motivational states (promotion; prevention) that either lead one to incorporate or disregard internal states when making judgments (Study 3) and by subtly manipulating participants' sense of control (Study 4).