The petrous bone is considered the most efficient source of endogenous DNA across skeletal tissues in ancient DNA (aDNA) research as well as in forensic work. Recently, aDNA in auditory ossicle bones was shown to be comparably well preserved as in the petrous, although no attempt was made to distinguish among the three ossicle bones. In this study, we compare aDNA profiles across matched ossicle- and petrous-derived sequencing libraries prepared from 29 human skeletons from Neolithic Anatolia and Medieval Iberia. We find that the stapes and incus provide higher human endogenous aDNA than the petrous bone, with >2× higher median rates of endogenous aDNA recovery, whereas the malleus performs similarly to the petrous. Human aDNA fragments retrieved from the stapes were 8% longer than those from the petrous, whereas postmortem damage, clonality, and contamination rates were comparable among the studied bone types. These observations are corroborated by data from nonmatched ossicle or petrous libraries from 81 individuals from the same contexts, with the highest endogenous aDNA content observed in the stapes. Despite being the smallest bone in the human skeleton, the stapes, along with the incus, may be among the most optimal aDNA sources yet identified.

The petrous bone is considered the most efficient source of endogenous DNA across skeletal tissues in ancient DNA research as well as in forensic work. Recently, ancient DNA (aDNA) in auditory ossicle bones was shown to be comparably well-preserved as in the petrous, although no attempt was made to distinguish among the three ossicle bones. In this study, we used a total of 114 human ossicle- and petrous-derived sequencing libraries from similar contexts (c.10,000 BP - 7,000 BP Anatolia), including 34 matched libraries prepared from the same individuals’ ossicle and petrous bones. Our results suggest that endogenous human aDNA preservation in the stapes is on average two times higher than in the petrous bone; it also tends to be higher than in the malleus and incus. Similarly, aDNA fragment lengths were higher in the stapes than in the petrous, whereas postmortem damage, clonality and contamination rates were comparable. Despite being the smallest bone in the human skeleton, the stapes may be the most optimal aDNA source yet identified. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

To provide a historic snapshot as regards the evolution of headache treatment throughout the human history, i.e. starting from trepanation to perisutural botulinum toxin (BoNT) injections. Ancient surgeons had aimed to reach the cranium with trepanation (a surgical operation) for headache. As BoNT inhibits the release of nociceptive and pro-inflammatory neuropeptides, it has been recently suggested as an effective alternative in the prophylactic treatment of chronic migraine headache. Chronic migraine is a complex neurological disorder for which the underlying pathophysiology is yet not totally explained. According to the generally accepted hypotheses, peripheral neurogenic activation and central trigeminal sensitization are the two main mechanisms through which its pain develops. Since the headache most commonly occurs around the perisutural areas, and as the primary pathogenesis stem from the meningeal nerve fibers; collateral sensorial branches of the meningeal nerves can be optimal paths to transport BoNT inside the cranium. Concerning the therapeutic efficacy, we anticipate that perisutural injections would be technically challenging with blind techniques and actually possible only if performed under an imaging guidance, e.g. very conveniently with high frequency ultrasound.

We present a spatiotemporal picture of human genetic diversity in Anatolia, Iran, Levant, South Caucasus, and the Aegean, a broad region that experienced the earliest Neolithic transition and the emergence of complex hierarchical societies. Combining 35 new ancient shotgun genomes with 382 ancient and 23 present-day published genomes, we found that genetic diversity within each region steadily increased through the Holocene. We further observed that the inferred sources of gene flow shifted in time. In the first half of the Holocene, Southwest Asian and the East Mediterranean populations homogenized among themselves. Starting with the Bronze Age, however, regional populations diverged from each other, most likely driven by gene flow from external sources, which we term "the expanding mobility model." Interestingly, this increase in inter-regional divergence can be captured by outgroup-f3-based genetic distances, but not by the commonly used FST statistic, due to the sensitivity of FST, but not outgroup-f3, to within-population diversity. Finally, we report a temporal trend of increasing male bias in admixture events through the Holocene.

The social organization of the first fully sedentary societies that emerged during the Neolithic period in Southwest Asia remains enigmatic,(1) mainly because material culture studies provide limited insight into this issue. However, because Neolithic Anatolian communities often buried their dead beneath domestic buildings,(2) household composition and social structure can be studied through these human remains. Here, we describe genetic relatedness among co-burials associated with domestic buildings in Neolithic Anatolia using 59 ancient genomes, including 22 new genomes from Asxikli Hoyuk and Catalhoyuk. We infer pedigree relationships by simultaneously analyzing multiple types of information, including autosomal and X chromosome kinship coefficients, maternal markers, and radiocarbon dating. In two early Neolithic villages dating to the 9th and 8th millennia BCE, Asxikli Hoyuk and Boncuklu, we discover that siblings and parent-offspring pairings were frequent within domestic structures, which provides the first direct indication of close genetic relationships among co-burials. In contrast, in the 7th millennium BCE sites of Catalhoyuk and Barcin, where we study subadults interred within and around houses, we find close genetic relatives to be rare. Hence, genetic relatedness may not have played a major role in the choice of burial location at these latter two sites, at least for subadults. This supports the hypothesis that in Catalhoyuk,(3-5) and possibly in some other Neolithic communities, domestic structures may have served as burial location for social units incorporating biologically unrelated individuals. Our results underscore the diversity of kin structures in Neolithic communities during this important phase of sociocultural development.

At Aşıklı Höyük, one of the earliest Pre-pottery Neolithic mound sites in Central Anatolia, a shift in animal utilization from broad-spectrum exploitation of diverse animal species to a concentration on managed caprines has been observed. Changes in the balance of meat to plant foods over the same time frame remain an open question. In this study, carbon and nitrogen isotopic analyses of bulk collagen and compound-specific nitrogen isotopic analysis of amino acids were undertaken for the human remains to elucidate the dietary impact of the hunting to herding transition over a span of about 1000 years. The results showed that animal protein consumption did not change very much as managed sheep became the main source of meat. The contribution of animal protein to the total human diet at Aşıklı Höyük is similar to comparison data on later Neolithic farmers in Anatolia measured in previous studies. The early development of ungulate management and the increasing focus on just a few prey species do not appear to have forced drastic changes in the extent human carnivory from the early Pre-pottery Neolithic to the early Pottery Neolithic. However, human individuals showed similar isotopic compositions within the same buildings at Aşıklı, suggesting variation in food consumption by household.

Asterion is the junction of lambdoid, parietomastoid and occipitomastoid sutures and it corresponds to the location of the posterolateral fontanelle.It is close related to the location of junction of transverse and sigmoid sinuses.Mastoid process, posterior end of zygomatic arch, external occipital protuberance and lambda are bony features in close proximity of asterion.In the present study we measured the distance between asterion and each of aforementioned bony points.Twenty human dry skulls were included in this study.Distance between asterion and mastoid process was 43.65 ± 6.75 mm on the left side and 45.01± 6.04mm on the right side.Distance between asterion and posterior end of zygomatic arch was 43.97 ± 7.37 mm on the left side and 43.95± 7.02 mm on the right side.Distance between asterion and external occipital protuberance was 62.59 ± 8.83 mm on the left side and 54.75 ±5.57mm on the right side.Distance between asterion and lambda was 81.40 ± 7.36 mm on the left side and 82 ± 4.96 mm on the right side.In 84 % of the cases asterion was at the junction of transverse and sigmoid sinuses.In 12% of the cases asterion was below the junction of transverse and sigmoid sinuses.In 4 % of the cases asterion was above the junction of transverse and sigmoid sinuses.Asterion is the essential point to indicate safety zone for surgical approach and to determine sex and age.It is of great interest of anatomists, anthropologists, forensic experts, radiologists and neurosurgeons

Auditory exostosis (AE) is a bony anomaly located on the tympanic portion of the temporal bone. Cold water, wind chill, and the effects of temperature are considered to be contributors to the development of AE. It is frequently encountered among surfers, lifeguards, whitewater kayakers, swimmers, and divers. Accordingly, there is a strong relationship between prolonged exposure to cold water and the frequency and grade of AE. For this reason, AE can be accepted as an occupational anomaly. In this study, AE from Kortik Tepe, Turkey, were analysed to understand the lifestyle of early hunter gatherer populations from Anatolia. One hundred twenty-eight individuals and 174 temporal bones from Kortik Tepe were examined for the frequency and severity (graded) of AE. Forty-five individuals (35.2%) have exostosis of various sizes. Half of 40 male individuals and 42.5% of females (n: 40) have AE with no statistically significant difference between the sexes. First observed in individuals 7 years of age, severity and frequency of AE increase with age. Besides increasing in frequency, the increase in size of AE suggest a continuous and prolonged exposure to cold water. The people of Kortik Tepe, which is surrounded by numerous freshwater sources, must have been subjected to cold water through activities such as bathing, cleaning, swimming, and playing in the water, as well as fishing. Our results suggest that the lifestyle of early sedentary people in Kortik Tepe was rather egalitarian with little or no gender differences and was closely connected to aquatic sources. Bioarchaeological data suggest that Kortik Tepe can be accepted as a community of hunter-gatherer-fishermen.

In 2003, a tall skeleton belonging to a young adult individual was recovered from a post-medieval cemetery situated north-east of the modern city of Erzurum, Turkey. The sex of the individual was not possible to determine. The predicted stature values range from 182 to 200 cm with the average 188.94 cm. The growth was proportional on almost all bones, except for the cranial and facial bones. The selected metric data were compared with the mean values of the male individuals from the same cemetery for differential diagnosis. The individual exhibits characteristics of both pituitary gigantism and acromegaly due to the tumour formation developed in the intrasellar area. Pathological features such as severe osteoarthritis, enthesis and new bone formation around and on the joint surface of the post-cranial bones, kyphoscoliosis and ankylosis are in agreement with these diagnoses as well. Copyright (c) 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

ABSTRACT This report describes a pilot study examining aDNA from a skeletal population excavated in the 1990s at the late Early Bronze Age (EBA, c. 2300‐2100 BC) urban settlement of Titriş Höyük in southeastern Turkey. Typically, late EBA burials at Titriş Höyük consisted of periodically reused underground family crypts contained within houses. However, one unique set of remains dated to the latest phase of the late EBA occupation at the site departed from this burial pattern entirely. It consisted of an above ground mortuary installation (B98.87) displaying the skulls and post‐cranial bones of 19 individuals, most exhibiting a variety of fatal traumas. In this article, we compare the mtDNA sequences of these individuals with those buried in contemporary traditional late EBA intramural crypts. After successful extraction and amplification of ancient DNA molecules during a double blind study of 13 skeletons selected for the pilot study, our team was able to compare the genetic relatedness of individuals displayed in B98.87 to individuals buried elsewhere on the site. Based on archaeological evidence alone, earlier we had suggested that the occupants of B98.87 were perhaps outsiders, possibly soldiers vanquished in hostilities taking place shortly before the abandonment of the city at the end of the late EBA. However, our pilot study showed no clear genetic difference between the population of B98.87 and the broader population of the late EBA city, contrary to our expectations. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The question of the presence of organized violence in the Neolithic settlements in Middle East has been debated. This paper presents possible examples of organized violence from the Neolithic period, representing early examples of settlements in Anatolia, to the Early Bronze Age, which provides the early instances of central authority. Most injuries detected among Neolithic populations in Anatolia have been associated with daily activities. Although individual examples of interpersonal violence exist among Neolithic and Chalcolithic populations in Anatolia, but they are far from representing organized violence. On the other hand the Early Bronze Age populations present clear evidence of perimortem wounds, mass burials, high frequency of cranial fractures, walls surrounding cities, and metal weapons in Anatolia. This suggests an increased evidence of organized violence in EBA Anatolia. Based on bioarchaeological data, it is concluded that violence in these settlements resulted from one or more ecological and social factors. However, each settlement might have peculiar reason for fighting.

Trauma is among the most important sources of data providing information related to systematic violence, battles and massacres among ancient populations. In this study, a mass grave from Titris Hoyuk in the Southeast Anatolia was examined in terms of cranial traumas. Skeletal remains of minimum 19 individuals were placed on a plaster basin as a secondary interment. The frequency of cranial trauma was 81.3% among 16 available adult crania. The fact that the perimortem traumas were observed on both sex groups and the presence of two children and an infant on the basin suggest the possibility of these individuals being subjected to an attack or a massacre. It has been determined that the frequency of traumas in the common burials increased more than twofold from Early-Mid EBA (6.7%) to Late EBA (14.3%). While all of the injuries observed in Early-Mid EBA were in the form of healed depressed trauma, penetrated traumas were also encountered in Late EBA. The increased frequency of cranial trauma with unusual interment on a plaster basin indicated that a social stress might have taken place in Titris Hoyuk. It is concluded that the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, the deterioration of the trade-based economy and resource stress might have been possible factors that played a role in the excessive violence, or a massacre in Titris Hoyuk. Copyright (c) 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In this study, trepanations in ancient Anatolia were discussed from a historical perspective. Trepanations were studied in respect to temporal and spatial distribution, sex and age distribution, techniques and reasons, completeness, healing and number of holes. Forty individuals from 23 different Anatolian settlements are identified to have undergone trepanations. Cranial trepanations in Anatolia show a distribution over a period of 10 000 years ranging from the Aceramic Neolithic period to the Late Ottoman period and spread to whole Anatolia. The greater majority of the individuals had single trepanation orifices while only four individuals were identified with multiple holes. It is observed that the surgical procedure was predominantly carried out on males in Anatolia. Main techniques of trepanations used in Anatolia are drilling and cutting. Early cases of trepanation were made by drilling; however, this technique has been used for cranial surgery until the Ottoman period. Scraping and rectangular sawing techniques first applied in the Early Bronze Age. The boring-and-cutting technique was only applied in the Iron Age. More than half of the trepanations practiced due to cranial trauma. Training and treatment besides of cranial trauma are also considered as likely causes of trepanations in Anatolia. It is concluded that trepanation techniques are similar to South America and the Mediterranean region rather than Europe. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Human skeletal remains dated to the Late Byzantine and Modern periods and uncovered at the Church of St. Nicholas in Demre, an important site for the Christians, were studied in order to identify their lifestyles and socio-economic structures of their groups. Furthermore, an attempt was made to analyse the evolution Of these structures. Within the frame of this study, a total of 81 human skeletons - 28 from the Late Byzantine graves and 53 from the Modern period graves - have been studied. The demographic structures of the groups were identified based on the sex and average age of death while their health structures were explored for injuries, anaemia, infections and joint diseases. The average age of death for the Late Byzantine group was calculated as 38.77 years. comparisons with contemporaneous groups from Iznik, Topakli, Bogazkoy, Eski Cezaevi, Degirmentepe and Karagunduz have shown that the Demre group has a higher average age of death. Based on the correlation between groups With high average age of death and their socio-econornic structures, the Late Byzantine group from Demre St. Nicholas Church has been identified as having had a socio-economic structure higher than those of the contemporaneous societies. This was further supported by another demographic factor: the low frequency of infantile and children's death rate (10.7%). The low frequency of infections and anaemia, which is among the factors that affect the long life span of a group, was related with their better living conditions and better adaptation to their environment in comparison with the conternporaneous groups from Anatolia. It was concluded that these individuals were those who made donations to the church and thus the privilege of interment at the monastery was awarded to them and their family members. The data regarding the population and health structure of the group as well as their site of burial indicated that these were people with a high socio-economic status, but the presence of trauma and joint diseases revealed that their lifestyles depended upon physical activities. The group dated to the Modern period has an average age of death at 44.07 years and an infantile and children's death rate of 17%. This group, too, has distinguished itself from its contemporaneous groups in Anatolia. As was in the Late Byzantine period, the demographic structure and low disease frequency indicated that this group too had a high socio-economic level. The traumas and joint diseases - important sources of data for identifying the lifestyles - have shown that the groups from the Late Byzantine period and the Modern period had similar lifestyles. In addition, decrease in the frequency of infections and anaemia pointed to improvement of hygiene, which has been attested to have been effective in increasing the life span of especially the women in the Modern period. When the data obtained from the demographic structure and disease frequency were considered together with the silver and gold-embellished silver belts left with them as burial gifts along with imported ceramics from England and Belgium, it was concluded that the Modern period group had a high socio-economic structure. Based on the anthropological and archaeological finds, it was concluded that the lifestyles of the Late Byzantine and Modern period groups did not differ from each other considerably but the hygienic conditions improved for the better in the Modern period.