A SNP (IGF2 G3072A) within intron 3 of IGF2 disrupts a binding site for the repressor zinc finger BED-type containing 6 (ZBED6), leading to increased carcass lean yields in pigs. However, the relative contributions of prenatal as opposed to postnatal increased IGF2 expression are unclear. As muscle fiber number is set at birth, prenatal and neonate skeletal muscle development is critical in determining mature growth potential. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine the contributions of hyperplasia and hypertrophy to increased muscle mass and to delineate the effect of the IGF2 mutation on the expression of myogenic genes during prenatal and postnatal growth. Sows (IGF2 A/A) were bred to a single heterozygous (IGF2 A/G) boar. For fetal samples, sows were euthanized at 60 and 90 d of gestation (d60 and d90) to obtain fetuses. Male and female offspring were also euthanized at birth (0d), weaning (21d), and market weight of approximately 130 kg (176d). At each sampling time, the LM, psoas major (PM), and semitendinosus (ST) muscles were weighed. Samples of the LM were used to quantify the expression of IGF family members, myogenic regulatory factors (MRF), myosin heavy chain isoforms, and growth factors, myostatin, and ZBED6. Liver samples were used to quantify IGF1 and IGF2 expression. At 176d, weights of LM, PM, and ST muscles were all increased approximately 8% to 14% (P < 0.01) in pigs with paternal A (APat) alleles compared with those with paternal G (GPat) alleles. Additionally, total muscle fiber number in the ST at 176d tended to be greater (P = 0.10), whereas muscle fiber cross-sectional area tended to be reduced (p = 0.08) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. In addition to the expected 2.7- to 4.5-fold increase (P ≤ 0.02) in IGF2 expression in the LM in APat compared with GPat pigs at postnatal sampling times (21d and 176d), IGF2 expression was also increased (P ≤ 0.06) 1.4- to 1.5-fold at d90 of gestation and at birth. At d90, expression of myogenic factor 5 (MYF5), a MRF expressed in proliferating myoblasts, in the LM was greater (P = 0.01) in APat pigs than in GPat pigs. Interestingly, at 21d hepatic IGF2 expression was greater (P = 0.01), whereas IGF1 expression decreased (p = 0.01) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs; however, there were no differences (P ≥ 0.18) in hepatic expression between genotypes at 0d and 176d. These data suggest that prenatal hyperplasia of muscle fibers stimulated by increased IGF2 expression may contribute to increased muscle mass of APat pigs.

A SNP in a regulatory region of intron 3 within the porcine IGF2 gene (IGF2-G3072A) is associated with increased lean deposition and decreased fat deposition in pigs with paternal A alleles (APat) compared with pigs with paternal G alleles (GPat). However, data regarding fresh and processed meat quality characteristics of pigs with different alleles for this polymorphism are limited. A single heterozygote (AG) boar was bred to homozygous (AA) commercial Yorkshire-cross sows producing F1 barrows and gilts with either GPat or APat. Two farrowing groups of barrows and gilts were group housed, provided ad libitum access to a diet that met or exceeded NRC nutrient recommendations throughout production, and slaughtered at 176 d (±4 d) of age. Fresh LM quality and estimated percent fat-free lean measurements were taken on the left side of carcasses, while carcass cutouts were completed with right sides. Fresh belly and bacon processing traits were characterized for only block 1 pigs. Pig was treated as the experimental unit for all analyses. Ending live weight and HCW were not affected by IGF2 allele; however, 10th rib backfat thickness was 0.41 cm less (P=0.01), loin eye area was 4.0 cm2 greater (P=0.01), and predicted fat-free lean was over 2 percentage units greater (P<0.01) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. Furthermore, boneless lean cuts from the shoulder, loin, and ham were heavier (P<0.05) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. Minolta L* value was 2.36 units greater (P=0.03) but cooking loss was 1.82 percentage units greater (P<0.01) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. Additionally, despite reductions in subcutaneous fat, extractable intramuscular lipid from the LM was 0.64 percentage units greater (P=0.02) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. Bellies were 7.17 mm thinner (P=0.01), had 7.27 cm less flop distance (P=0.05), and tended to have 1.34 units greater iodine value (P=0.09) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. While not statistically different (P=0.30), the magnitude of difference in slicing yield as a percentage of green weight was 1.57 percentage units between bellies from APat pigs (85.83%) and bellies from GPat pigs (87.40%). Pigs with GPat had superior belly quality that may positively impact commercial bacon production. However, pigs with APat yielded a greater amount of lean product at the expense of producing lighter LM color and increased cooking loss.

A SNP in a regulatory region of intron 3 within the porcine IGF2 gene (IGF2-G3072A) is associated with increased lean deposition and decreased fat deposition in pigs with paternal A alleles (APat) compared with pigs with paternal G alleles (GPat). However, data regarding fresh and processed meat quality characteristics of pigs with different alleles for this polymorphism are limited. A single heterozygote (AG) boar was bred to homozygous (AA) commercial Yorkshire-cross sows producing F1 barrows and gilts with either GPat or APat. Two farrowing groups of barrows and gilts were group housed, provided ad libitum access to a diet that met or exceeded NRC nutrient recommendations throughout production, and slaughtered at 176 d (±4 d) of age. Fresh LM quality and estimated percent fat-free lean measurements were taken on the left side of carcasses, while carcass cutouts were completed with right sides. Fresh belly and bacon processing traits were characterized for only block 1 pigs. Pig was treated as the experimental unit for all analyses. Ending live weight and HCW were not affected by IGF2 allele; however, 10th rib backfat thickness was 0.41 cm less (P=0.01), loin eye area was 4.0 cm2 greater (P=0.01), and predicted fat-free lean was over 2 percentage units greater (P<0.01) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. Furthermore, boneless lean cuts from the shoulder, loin, and ham were heavier (P<0.05) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. Minolta L* value was 2.36 units greater (P=0.03) but cooking loss was 1.82 percentage units greater (P<0.01) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. Additionally, despite reductions in subcutaneous fat, extractable intramuscular lipid from the LM was 0.64 percentage units greater (P=0.02) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. Bellies were 7.17 mm thinner (P=0.01), had 7.27 cm less flop distance (P=0.05), and tended to have 1.34 units greater iodine value (P=0.09) in APat pigs compared with GPat pigs. While not statistically different (P=0.30), the magnitude of difference in slicing yield as a percentage of green weight was 1.57 percentage units between bellies from APat pigs (85.83%) and bellies from GPat pigs (87.40%). Pigs with GPat had superior belly quality that may positively impact commercial bacon production. However, pigs with APat yielded a greater amount of lean product at the expense of producing lighter LM color and increased cooking loss.

The objective was to determine which tissue components contributed to the reduction in carcass yield of immunologically castrated (IC) barrows when compared to physically castrated (PC) barrows. The carcass yield of an IC barrow is less than the carcass yield of a PC barrow. This has historically been attributed to the presence of testicles, but the testes have only accounted for approximately 0.25% of live weight. This experiment included PC barrows, intact males, IC barrows, IC barrows fed ractopamine hydrochloride, and gilts. When the pigs reached 15 wk old, they were weighed, assigned to treatments (intact male or IC barrow), and penned in groups of 4 pigs per pen. Pigs designated for immunological castration were given injections at approximately 16 wk old and approximately 20 wk old. Pigs were eligible for harvest 33 d after the second injection when the average weight of the pen reached 130 kg. Immunologically castrated barrows lost on average 0.7% units more live weight during transport and lairage than PC barrows, intact males, or gilts. Physically castrated barrows had a 1.43% unit advantage over IC barrows in carcass yield. The differences in yield can be attributed to differences in testicles, reproductive tract, intestinal mass, gut fill, and some visceral organs. Testicle weight accounted for a 0.28% unit reduction in carcass yield of IC barrows when compared to PC barrows. Additional reproductive tract weights accounted for differences of 0.10% units. Intestinal mass (empty large intestine, small intestine, and stomach) was 0.2% units heavier in IC barrows when compared to PC barrows. Livers from IC barrows were 200 g heavier (P < 0.05) and kidneys were 40 g heavier than the same organs in PC barrows. These 2 organs combined for a 0.15% unit difference in carcass yield between IC and PC barrows. Gut fill, testicles, reproductive tract, intestinal mass, and the liver and kidney accounted for 0.97 of 1.43% unit differences in carcass yield between IC and PC barrows. Immunologically castrated barrows had less marbling than PC barrows, but there were no other differences in pork quality parameters. Cutability differences were less than reported in previous experiments, but IC barrows still had a 1.0% unit advantage in lean cutting yield and a 0.7% unit advantage in carcass cutting yield when compared to PC barrows.

UNLABELLED:The objective was to evaluate high-pressure processing (HPP) with varying liquid (water) temperatures on pork quality and textural properties of frankfurters. HPP pressurization liquid temperatures were 15.5 °C (HPP Low) and 29.4 °C (HPP Med). Analyses were conducted using paired boneless loins and paired boneless hams. Loins were evaluated for pH, purge loss, objective color, subjective color, firmness; and changes in color after a bloom period. Eight independent batches (2 batches each of HPP Low, paired untreated, HPP Med, and paired untreated) of frankfurters were manufactured from the outside portion of the ham and the knuckle. Both HPP treatments resulted in higher (P < 0.05) ultimate pH and less (P < 0.05) purge loss of the loin. Loin tenderness was not different among either HPP treatment temperature groups when compared to untreated controls except HPP Med chops were more tender (P = 0.02) than untreated controls. Salt-soluble protein extractability of inside ham muscles was lower (P < 0.05) for both HPP treatment levels when compared to untreated controls, but was not different between the 2 HPP treatment levels. Textural properties of frankfurters were not different for either HPP treatment group when compared to its respective untreated control for any parameter except springiness. HPP Low frankfurters had lower (P = 0.10) springiness values than untreated controls. Fracturability of HPP Med samples was lower (P = 0.12) than untreated controls. Overall, HPP caused higher ultimate pH and increased water-holding capacity, but did not affect tenderness of fresh meat or textural properties of frankfurters.PRACTICAL APPLICATION:HPP can be used on prerigor pork as means to improve fresh pork quality. Loins from HPP-treated pork sides had higher ultimate pH values and less package purge loss. Tenderness values were not affected positively or negatively by HPP treatment. The high pH and water-holding capabilities of treated samples have positive implications for further processing applications. Frankfurter textural properties suggest emulsified products can be made with pressurized pork without sacrifice to the textural profile.

The objective of this study was to identify specific bovine genes expressed within skeletal muscle that are associated with intramuscular fat deposition. Twenty-eight Angus-Simmental cross steers and heifers were harvested at the University of Illinois Meat Science Laboratory. Four pairs of animals were identified based on similar adjusted backfat thickness but differing amounts of intramuscular fat within each pair. RNA was extracted from muscle samples devoid of visible fat and microarray analysis was performed. Based on this analysis, 9 genes were selected and expression was subsequently confirmed by qPCR. Expression levels of MYH3, HOXD10, MXRA8, and CASQ2 were increased in animals with high marbling, whereas levels of NPNT, MRC1, DNER, and CYPB4 were decreased in high marbled animals. The remaining gene, ACTN2 was determined to be a false positive and was, therefore, excluded from further study. Despite the positive results of the preliminary study, associations between gene expression and intramuscular fat content did not extend to the larger population of cattle. A significant negative association existed between expression of MRC1 and marbling level (P = 0.04). Therefore, this study was unable to identify a particular skeletal muscle gene set whose expression correlated well with marbling levels in the larger population of beef cattle.

Gilts (n=45) were used in this study to characterize the effect of genotype on loin characteristics and quality over the length of the loin. Three diverse genotypes included a high quality Duroc line (A), a Duroc based composite line selected for lean growth (B), and an F1 cross of the two (C). After harvest, bone-in loins were removed from the carcass and cut perpendicular to the backbone at the 5th/6th rib, 7th/8th rib, 10th/11th rib, last rib, midlumbar, and the loin/sirloin juncture. Quality measurements were obtained at the 5th/6th rib, 10th/11th rib, and the loin/sirloin juncture. Digital images were taken of each surface (n=6) and analyzed for the determination of loin muscle area (LMA), muscle width, muscle depth (at three locations across the loin face), and fat depth. The average loin depth was calculated and used to calculate the loin depth:width ratio as an indication of loin shape or conformation. Loins from line A had the lowest (P<0.05) subjective color score, had the highest (P<0.05) amount of marbling, and were the firmest (P<0.05) of all three lines. There were also differences (P<0.05) between genetic lines for LMA, width, all three depths, fat depth, and depth:depth ratios. The most posterior portions of the loin had the largest (P<0.05) LMA, loin width, fat depth, and muscle depth 1. However, the more anterior portions of the loin had greater (P<0.01) values for the depth:width ratio and muscle depth:depth ratios.

The objective of this experiment was to determine if increasing lysine in the diets of immunologically castrated (IC) male pigs would affect further processed product characteristics when compared with physical castrates or entire males. Raw materials for this experiment were derived from a previous experiment evaluating carcass characteristics. Physical castrates, IC males, and entire males were assigned to 1 of 4 diet programs with increasing lysine in a step-down lysine inclusion program that culminated with the following concentrations in the late finishing diet: physical castrate with low lysine (0.7%), IC with low lysine (0.7%), IC with low/medium lysine (0.8%), IC with medium/high lysine (0.9%), IC with high lysine (1.0%), and entire with high lysine (1.0%). Bellies were injected with a cure solution to a target of 110% of original green weight, and weighed again to determine brine uptake. Hams were injected with same cure solution to a target of 130% of green weight. Cure solution was formulated for a finished product inclusion of 1.5% salt, 0.34% phosphate, 0.05% sodium erythorbate, 0.11% sugar, and 0.014% sodium nitrate. Physical castrates had thicker (3.77 cm) bellies (P < 0.05) than all treatment groups, except IC males fed low/medium lysine (3.73 cm). Entire males (2.85 cm) had the thinnest (P < 0.05) bellies of all treatment groups. There were no differences (P > 0.05) in percentage brine uptake for cured bellies among IC males regardless of dietary lysine (range 9.93 to 10.67%). Cooked yield of cured bellies was not different (P > 0.05) among physical castrates or IC males regardless of lysine inclusion. Cooked yield of cured bellies from entire males (95.12%) was less (P < 0.05) than cooked yield for any other treatment group. Pumped weight differences of cured hams among treatment groups were similar to green weight differences, and there were no differences (P > 0.05) among any treatment groups for pump uptake percentage. There were also no differences in cook loss percentages among any treatment group. Therefore, differences in cooked yield are a reflection of initial green weight. There were no differences (P > 0.05) for protein fat-free values among any treatment groups. Therefore, it can be concluded, in this population of pigs, there were no differences in further processed product characteristics among physical castrates and IC males.

The objective was to evaluate high pressure processing (HPP) on postmortem metabolism and pork quality. Six pigs were randomly selected immediately after slaughter. After splitting, one side was randomly designated for HPP of 215MPa for 15s with water temperature at 33°C and the other side (non-pressure treated) served as the control. Chilled sides were fabricated into loins, boneless picnic, boneless Boston butt, and ham. Samples were cut from the loin, inside portion of the ham and cushion (M. triceps brachii). Pork quality, lipid oxidation, connective tissue solubility, protein functionality, sensory analysis, and processed characteristics of restructured hams were evaluated. HPP partially inhibits postmortem metabolism, indicated by lower muscle lactate levels and higher ultimate pH values. Cook and drip loss were both reduced in HPP treated muscles compared to controls. HPP treated sides were more tender than controls. Collagen content was not different between HPP and control groups.