Magnetic reconnection is a fundamental physical process that can drive rapid conversion of magnetic energy into plasma bulk flows, thermal heating, and particle acceleration in space and astrophysical plasmas. Classical reconnection theory predicts that the Alfv & eacute;nic reconnection exhausts are bounded by pairs of slow-mode shocks. However, identifying and characterizing these shocks through in situ spacecraft observations remains a challenge. Here, we report Parker Solar Probe observations of a reconnection exhaust embedded in the heliospheric current sheet at a heliocentric distance of 12.2 R & xodot; . The reconnection exhaust is bounded on both boundaries by compound magnetic structures rather than a pair of pure slow shocks. Each boundary consists of a rapidly evolving, steep, inner slow shock, whose Mach numbers and shock-normal angles change significantly within several minutes, and an outer, gradual compound structure that comprises a slow shock and a rotational discontinuity. These slow shocks are quasi-perpendicular and are accompanied by enhanced proton perpendicular heating. Deep within the reconnection exhaust, high perpendicular temperature together with large plasma beta trigger mirror instability and generate mirror-mode structures. These observations provide new insights into the structure of reconnection exhaust boundaries and their role in energy conversion in the near-Sun plasma.

The properties of the solar wind, as measured in situ throughout the heliosphere, depend both on the characteristics of its coronal source and on the intrinsic processes governing its interplanetary evolution. Recently, radial and Parker spiral alignment techniques have been applied to Parker Solar Probe (PSP) and Solar Orbiter (SO) observations to investigate the radial evolution of the same solar wind parcel. These studies have shown that the solar wind can undergo significant acceleration even beyond its primary acceleration region (i.e., above 15 R circle dot). However, such radial and Parker spiral alignments are rare in practice, which limits the statistical significance and general applicability of the results. We introduce a new source alignment technique designed to overcome these limitations. Using magnetic backmapping, we associate similar solar wind streams observed by the two spacecraft based on the proximity of their photospheric footpoints, combined with additional in situ stream similarity criteria. Applying the source alignment method to PSP and SO observations, we identify a total of 548 alignment intervals, each lasting 30 minutes. By constructing statistics over all alignments, we find that the solar wind speed increases by an average of 45% per radial decade (approximately 147 km s-1) between the two probes. This result demonstrates that solar wind acceleration in the inner heliosphere remains significant compared to that occurring below 15 R circle dot. Among the different studied plasma parameters, the radial evolution of the electron temperature and plasma density shows the strongest anticorrelation with the increase in bulk velocity.

Parker Solar Probe (PSP) observes abundant circularly polarized ion-scale waves throughout the inner heliosphere. These waves are a signature of the interplay between plasma microinstabilities and turbulent dissipation. We perform a mission-wide statistical survey of ion-scale waves observed by PSP, which are stored in a publicly available repository, investigating whether the waves correspond to specific free energy sources in the measured proton velocity distributions. We find that left-handed waves (LHWs) are frequently observed, with the fraction of time they are observed increasing closer to the Sun, reaching similar to 30%. Right-handed waves (RHWs) are less frequently observed, with the associated time fraction decreasing closer to the Sun. The observed LHWs are generally consistent with parallel-propagating ion cyclotron wave storms that occur continuously for extended periods of time. Turbulent energy spectra are consistently steeper when LHW storms are observed; these wave storms mediate the spatial transport of the free energy associated with temperature anisotropy. The observed RHWs are generally consistent with oblique and parallel fast magnetosonic waves (FMWs), and their observation is well correlated with enhanced proton parallel heat flux, which quantifies the presence of secondary proton populations. Using observations and the SAVIC machine learning instability identification algorithm, we identify a threshold on the proton heat flux beyond which FMWs are likely to be driven unstable by the proton beams. We are thus able to associate trends in the observed ion-scale waves with known sources of free energy for Encounters 3-24 of the PSP's prime science phase.

The Sun’s surface vibrates in characteristic 5 minute oscillations, known as p -modes, generated by sound waves trapped within the convection zone. Although these oscillations have long been hypothesized to reach into the solar wind, direct in situ evidence has remained elusive, even during previous close encounters by Parker Solar Probe (PSP). Here, we present strong in situ evidence of 5 minute oscillations in the upper solar corona, based on observations from PSP’s three closest perihelia. In two events at 9.9 solar radii ( R _⊙ ), we identify statistically significant (∼6 σ ) 3.1–3.2 mHz peaks in the magnetic field power spectrum, each appearing as a large-amplitude, spherically polarized Alfvénic wave train lasting approximately 35 minutes. These results demonstrate that global solar oscillations can reach the solar wind.

Open questions in collisionless plasma dissipation can be addressed using space-based observations in different astrophysical environments, with implications for both astrophysical and laboratory plasma systems. We study a low-β, highly imbalanced, sub-Alfvénic stream observed by Parker Solar Probe (PSP) to identify and distinguish between signatures of stochastic heating (SH) and resonant heating (RH) by parallel ion cyclotron waves (∥-ICWs). Prior work studying this stream [Trevor A. Bowen et al., Stochastic heating in the sub-Alfvénic solar wind, Phys. Rev. Lett. 135, 255201 (2025)PRLTAO0031-900710.1103/rxd8-22m9] showed that the SH rate, accounting for intermittency, matched the amplitude of the local energy transfer (LET) rate, while the RH rate did not. This comparison relied on a number of assumptions regarding the nature of the diffusive process and the calculation of the LET rate. We introduce a novel technique of inverting the proton guiding center equation to empirically measure velocity-space diffusion coefficients using three-dimensional proton velocity distribution functions, from the ion electrostatic analyzer (the Solar Probe Analyzer for Ions) on PSP. Measured diffusion coefficients are used to determine phase-space heating rates, leading to a calculation of a fully kinetic heating rate independent of assumptions made in prior work. We show that scale-dependent analytic expressions for SH via noncoherent fluctuations match the empirical measurements from PSP data, provided that we account for intermittency in the heating calculation. In contrast, the derived heating rates for SH that accounts for the effects of the helicity barrier and heating rates for RH via ∥-ICWs do not peak in the same region of velocity space as the empirical measurements, nor do they reach the required magnitude. Our approach provides novel methodology to uniquely identify and constrain heating processes in collisionless plasmas and shows evidence of a Fokker-Planck-like diffusive process in the near-Sun solar wind.

The solar wind undergoes nonadiabatic heating as it travels away from the Sun. The velocity phase-space distribution of nonequilibrium ions in the solar wind indicates a source of free energy that could contribute significantly to this heating. Parker Solar Probe (PSP) has observed velocity distributions containing highly anisotropic, perpendicularly diffused proton beams with a distinctly constricted gap between the core and beam populations. These distributions resemble a “hammerhead” shape and were first reported in the fourth PSP encounter. Numerical simulations have reproduced the qualitative nature of hammerheads under certain initial conditions but have not convincingly captured the prevalence or extreme attributes of the observed beam. This necessitates a broad study of the occurrence conditions and the associated plasma processes, to better guide simulations. We statistically investigate the occurrences of these structures from 20 recent PSP encounters and find that hammerheads dominantly occur around the heliospheric current sheet (HCS). As the inclination of the HCS at PSP crossing points increases over the rising phase of the solar cycle, the occurrence of hammerheads is increasingly concentrated in narrow time periods around the HCS crossings. For comparison with previous work, we present statistical trends in the anisotropy of the proton beam and its connection to the density of proton beams as well as the drift speed of the beam to the core. Our study establishes a consistent occurrence pattern of hammerhead distributions around the HCS, indicating hammerheads are diagnostics of energization processes associated with the HCS and its escaping wind.

Characterizing the plasma state in the near-Sun environment is essential to constrain the mechanisms that heat and accelerate the solar wind. In this study, we use Parker Solar Probe observations from Encounters 1 through 24 to investigate the radial evolution of solar wind plasma and magnetic field properties in this region. Using intervals with high field-of-view (>85%) coverage, we derive the radial profiles of magnetic field strength (divided by B divided by), proton density (N), bulk speed (V), total proton temperature (T), parallel (T-parallel to) and perpendicular (T-perpendicular to) temperatures, temperature anisotropy (T-perpendicular to/T-parallel to), plasma beta (beta), Alfven Mach number (M-A), and magnetic field fluctuations (delta B/B) for sub and super-Alfvenic regions. In super-Alfvenic regions, power laws of divided by B divided by, N, V, and T as a function of the heliocentric distance are broadly consistent with previous Helios results at >0.3 au. The radial evolution of the components of the temperature tensor reveals distinct behavior: T(perpendicular to)decreases monotonically with distance, whereas T-parallel to exhibits a nonmonotonic trend-decreasing in the sub-Alfvenic region, increasing just beyond the Alfv & eacute;n surface. We interpret the increase in T-parallel to as a proxy for proton beam occurrence. We further examine the evolution of magnetic field fluctuations, finding decreasing radial/parallel fluctuations but enhanced tangential/normal/perpendicular fluctuations in the sunward direction. These fluctuations may provide free energy for beam generation and particle heating via wave-particle interactions.

Corotating interaction regions (CIRs) are long-lasting solar wind structures that persist over multiple solar rotations. These structures accelerate particles throughout the heliosphere and can impart significant energy onto planetary ionospheres and magnetospheres. Understanding how CIRs and their associated energetic particles evolve radially with heliocentric distance is of great interest and can give insight into acceleration mechanisms that occur within these structures. CIR solar wind and particle properties have been examined at numerous heliocentric distances but have been largely unexplored at Mars. We examine the properties of a CIR observed over two Carrington rotations by the Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO)-A at 1 au and the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) spacecraft at 1.5 au. This CIR was observed during near-radial alignment of the spacecraft, allowing for the exclusion of significant longitudinal variations in the CIR's properties. We find that during both rotations, the scaled solar wind density and interplanetary magnetic field are slightly higher at MAVEN than measurements at STEREO-A, and the CIR compression occurs over similar periods at both spacecraft during each event. Suprathermal particle enhancements are observed at both spacecraft during both passes of the CIR. Variations in the particle spectra between observations indicate suprathermal particle acceleration at both spacecraft, with higher-energy populations observed at 1.5 au compared to 1 au. Spectral anisotropies observed at MAVEN also indicate a combination of local and nonlocal particle acceleration, further demonstrating that the acceleration mechanisms associated with CIRs are complex and evolve with heliocentric distance.

We analyze Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter observations to investigate the propagation and dissipation of Alfvénic fluctuations from the outer corona to 1 AU. Conservation of wave-action flux provides the theoretical baseline for how fluctuation amplitudes scale with the Alfvén Mach number M_a, once solar-wind acceleration is accounted for. Departures from this scaling quantify the net balance between energy injection and dissipation. Fluctuation amplitudes follow wave-action conservation for M_a < M_a^b but steepen beyond this break point, which typically lies near the Alfvén surface (M_a ≈ 1) yet varies systematically with normalized cross helicity σ_c and fluctuation scale. In slow, quasi-balanced streams, the transition occurs at M_a ≲ 1; in fast, imbalanced wind, WKB-like scaling persists to M_a ≳ 1. Outer-scale fluctuations maintain wave-action conservation to larger M_a than inertial-range modes. The turbulent heating rate Q is largest below M_a^b, indicating a preferential heating zone shaped by the degree of imbalance. Despite this, the Alfvénic energy flux F_a remains elevated, and the corresponding damping length Λ_d = F_a/Q remains sufficiently large to permit long-range propagation before appreciable damping occurs. Normalized damping lengths Λ_d/H_A, where H_A is the inverse Alfvén-speed scale height, are near unity for M_a ≲ M_a^b but decline with increasing M_a and decreasing U, implying that incompressible reflection-driven turbulence alone cannot account for the observed dissipation. Additional damping mechanisms – such as compressible effects – are likely required to account for the observed heating rates across much of the parameter space.

Magnetic reconnection is a fundamental and omnipresent energy conversion process in plasma physics. Novel observations of fields and particles from Parker Solar Probe (PSP) have shown the absence of reconnection in a large number of current sheets in the near-Sun solar wind. Using near-Sun observations from PSP encounters 4–11 (2020 January–2022 March), we investigate whether reconnection onset might be suppressed by velocity shear. We compare estimates of the tearing mode growth rate in the presence of shear flow for time periods identified as containing reconnecting current sheets versus nonreconnecting times, finding systematically larger growth rates for reconnection periods. Upon examination of the parameters associated with reconnection onset, we find that 85% of the reconnection events are embedded in slow, non-Alfvénic wind streams. We compare with fast, slow non-Alfvénic, and slow Alfvénic streams, finding that the growth rate is suppressed in highly Alfvénic fast and slow wind, and reconnection is not seen in these wind types, as would be expected from our theoretical expressions. These wind streams have strong Alfvénic flow shear, consistent with the idea of reconnection suppression by such flows. This could help explain the frequent absence of reconnection events in the highly Alfvénic, near-Sun solar wind observed by PSP. Finally, we find a steepening of both the trace and magnitude magnetic field spectra within reconnection periods in comparison to ambient wind. We tie this to the dynamics of relatively balanced turbulence within these reconnection periods and the potential generation of compressible fluctuations.

We compare observations of hydrogen (H) and protons associated with Martian proton aurora activity, co‐evaluating remote sensing and in situ measurements during these events. Following the currently understood relationship between penetrating protons and H energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) in the formation of proton aurora, we observe an expected correlation between the H Lyman‐alpha (Ly‐ α ) emission enhancement (used herein as a proxy for H‐ENAs) and penetrating proton flux. However, we also observe a notable spread in the trend between these two data sets. We find that this spread is contemporaneous with one of two major impacting events: high dust activity or extreme solar activity. Proton aurora events exhibiting a relative excess in penetrating proton flux compared to Ly‐ α enhancement tend to correspond with periods of high dust activity. Conversely, proton aurora events exhibiting a relative deficit of penetrating proton flux compared to Ly‐ α enhancement are qualitatively associated with periods of extreme solar activity. Moreover, we find that the largest proton aurora events occur during concurrent dust storm and solar events, primarily due to the compounding intensified increase in H column density above the bow shock. Finally, we present a simplified empirical estimate for Ly‐ α emission enhancement during proton aurora events based on the observed penetrating proton flux and a knowledge of local dust/solar activity at the time; this estimate provides a straightforward method for predicting auroral activity when direct observations are not possible or available. The results of this study advance our understanding of the interconnected relationship between H and protons during Martian proton aurora activity.

The slow solar wind is typically characterized as having low Alfv\'enicity. However, Parker Solar Probe (PSP) observed predominately Alfv\'enic slow solar wind during several of its initial encounters. From its first encounter observations, about 55.3\% of the slow solar wind inside 0.25 au is highly Alfv\'enic ($|\sigma_C| > 0.7$) at current solar minimum, which is much higher than the fraction of quiet-Sun-associated highly Alfv\'enic slow wind observed at solar maximum at 1 au. Intervals of slow solar wind with different Alfv\'enicities seem to show similar plasma characteristics and temperature anisotropy distributions. Some low Alfv\'enicity slow wind intervals even show high temperature anisotropies, because the slow wind may experience perpendicular heating as fast wind does when close to the Sun. This signature is confirmed by Wind spacecraft measurements as we track PSP observations to 1 au. Further, with nearly 15 years of Wind measurements, we find that the distributions of plasma characteristics, temperature anisotropy and helium abundance ratio ($N_\alpha/N_p$) are similar in slow winds with different Alfv\'enicities, but the distributions are different from those in the fast solar wind. Highly Alfv\'enic slow solar wind contains both helium-rich ($N_\alpha/N_p\sim0.045$) and helium-poor ($N_\alpha/N_p\sim0.015$) populations, implying it may originate from multiple source regions. These results suggest that highly Alfv\'enic slow solar wind shares similar temperature anisotropy and helium abundance properties with regular slow solar winds, and they thus should have multiple origins.

Martian diffuse auroras are ultraviolet emissions spread across the nightside of Mars caused by solar energetic particles (SEP), both electrons and protons. The nightside structures of induced and crustal magnetic fields are expected to affect the diffuse auroral emission profiles caused by electrons, which is far from understood. Here we estimate magnetic field effects on emission based on a newly developed Monte Carlo model simulating collisions and electron cyclotron motions. Parameter surveys of the magnetic field intensity and dip angle (angle of magnetic field line from horizontal direction) under uniform magnetic field structure show that the effects of magnetic field dip angle on auroral altitude profiles are greater than those of magnetic field intensity. We then applied our model to the September 2017 diffuse aurora event using MAVEN SEP electron flux observations and neutral atmospheric profile from the Mars Climate Database as inputs. Comparison between horizontal and vertical magnetic field dip angle cases indicates that the horizontal dip angle case results in broader limb-integrated auroral altitude profiles than the vertical case and enhances the auroral intensity at high altitudes (>75 km). The magnetic field structure can be one of the important factors in understanding the Martian diffuse auroras.

We investigate a class of ion-scale magnetic solitary structures in the solar wind, characterized by distinct magnetic field enhancements and bipolar rotations over spatial scales of several proton inertial lengths. These structures are revisited using high-resolution data from the Solar Orbiter and Parker Solar Probe missions. Using a machine learning–based method, we identified nearly a thousand such structures, providing new insights into their evolution and physical properties. Statistical analysis shows that these structures are more abundant closer to the Sun, with occurrence rates peaking around 30−40 R _⊙ and decreasing farther out. High-cadence measurements reveal that these structures are predominantly found in low-beta ( β ≤ 1) environments, with consistent fluctuations in density, velocity, and magnetic field. Magnetic field enhancements are often accompanied by plasma density drops, which, under near-pressure balance, limit field increases. This leads to small fractional field enhancements near the Sun (approximately 0.01 at 20 R _⊙ ), making detection challenging. Magnetic field variance analysis indicates that these structures are primarily oblique to the local magnetic field. Alfvénic velocity–magnetic field correlations suggest that most of these structures, unlike most near-Sun solar wind fluctuations, exhibit sunward-directed Alfvénic polarization in the plasma frame. We compare these findings with previous studies, discussing possible generation mechanisms and their implications for the turbulent cascade in the near-Sun Alfvénic solar wind. While these structures might be Alfvénic solitons, vortices, or flux ropes, we refrain from a definitive classification pending further evidence. Further high-resolution observations and simulations are needed to fully understand their origins and impacts.

Turbulent magnetic field fluctuations observed in the solar wind often maintain a constant-magnitude magnetic field accompanied by spherically polarized velocity fluctuations; these signatures are characteristic of large-amplitude Alfvén waves. Nonlinear energy transfer in Alfvénic turbulence is typically considered in the small-amplitude limit where the constant-magnitude condition may be neglected; in contrast, nonlinear energy transfer of large-amplitude fluctuations remains relatively unstudied. We develop a method to analyze large-amplitude turbulence through studying fluctuations as constant-magnitude rotations in the de Hoffmann–Teller frame, in which the convected electric field of the fluctuations vanishes such that the frame and fluctuations are copropagating. Our analysis reveals signatures of large-amplitude effects deep into the inertial range. While the dominant fluctuations are consistent with spherically polarized large-amplitude Alfvén waves, the subdominant fluctuations are relatively compressible. Signatures of nonlinear interaction between the large-amplitude spherically polarized mode with the subdominant population reveal highly aligned transverse components. In many theoretical models of Alfvénic turbulence, alignment is thought to reduce nonlinearity; our observations suggest that the observed alignment is sufficient to either reduce shear nonlinearity such that non-Alfvénic interactions may be responsible for energy transfer in spherically polarized states, or alternatively that counterpropagating fluctuations maintain anomalous coherence, a predicted signature of reflection-driven turbulence.

The geometry of a star’s Alfvén surface determines stellar angular momentum loss, separates a causally distinct “corona” and stellar wind, and potentially affects exoplanetary habitability. The solar Alfvén surface is the only such structure that is directly measurable and, since 2021, has been routinely measured in situ by NASA’s Parker Solar Probe (Parker). We use these unique measurements in concert with Solar Orbiter and L1 in situ data spanning the first half of solar cycle 25 in time and from 0.045 to 1 au in heliocentric distance to develop a radial scaling technique to estimate the morphology of the Alfvén surface from measurements of the solar wind speed and local Alfvén speed. We show that accounting for solar wind acceleration and mass flux is necessary to achieve reasonable agreement between the scaled location of the Alfvén surface and the locations of direct crossings measured by Parker. We produce continuous 2D equatorial cuts of the Alfvén surface over half a solar cycle (ascending phase and maximum). Parker’s earliest crossings clipped outward extrusions, many of which are likely transient-related, while more recently, Parker has unambiguously sampled deep sub-Alfvénic flows. We analyze the average altitude, departure from spherical symmetry, and surface roughness, finding that all are positively correlated to solar activity. For the current modest solar cycle, the height varies up to 30%, which corresponds to a near doubling in angular momentum loss per unit mass loss.

We report observations of direct evidence of energetic protons being accelerated above ∼400 keV within the reconnection exhaust of a heliospheric current sheet (HCS) crossing by NASA’s Parker Solar Probe (PSP) at a distance of ∼16.25 solar radii ( R _s ) from the Sun. Inside the exhaust, both the reconnection-generated plasma jet and the accelerated protons up to ∼400 keV propagated toward the Sun, unambiguously establishing their origin from HCS reconnection sites located antisunward of PSP. Within the core of the exhaust, PSP detected stably trapped energetic protons up to ∼400 keV, which is ≈1000 times greater than the available magnetic energy per particle. The differential energy spectrum of the accelerated protons behaved as a pure power law with spectral index of ∼−5. Supporting simulations using the kglobal model suggest that the trapping and acceleration of protons up to ∼400 keV in the reconnection exhaust are likely facilitated by merging magnetic islands with a guide field between ∼0.2 and 0.3 of the reconnecting magnetic field, consistent with the observations. These new results, enabled by PSP’s proximity to the Sun, demonstrate that magnetic reconnection in the HCS is a significant new source of energetic particles in the near-Sun solar wind. Our findings of in situ particle acceleration via magnetic reconnection at the HCS provide valuable insights into this fundamental process, which frequently converts the large magnetic field energy density in the near-Sun plasma environment and may be responsible for heating the Sun’s atmosphere, accelerating the solar wind, and energizing charged particles to extremely high energies in solar flares.

During Parker Solar Probe (Parker) Encounter 15 (E15), we observe an 18 hr period of near-subsonic ( M _S ∼ 1) and sub-Alfvénic (SA), M _A ⋘ 1, slow-speed solar wind from 22 to 15.6 R _⊙ . As the most extreme SA interval measured to date and skirting the solar wind sonic point, it is the deepest Parker has probed into the formation and acceleration region of the solar wind in the corona. The stream is also measured by Wind and the Magnetosonic Multiscale mission near 1 au at times consistent with ballistic propagation of this slow stream. We investigate the stream source, properties, and potential coronal heating consequences via combining these observations with coronal modeling and turbulence analysis. Through source mapping, in situ evidence, and multipoint arrival time considerations of a candidate coronal mass ejection, we determine the stream is a steady (nontransient), long-lived, and approximately Parker spiral aligned and arises from overexpanded field lines mapping back to an active region. Turbulence analysis of the Elsässer variables shows the inertial range scaling of the z ^+ mode ( f ∼ ^−3/2 ) to be dominated by the slab component. We discuss the spectral flattening and difficulties associated with measuring the z ^− spectra, cautioning against making definitive conclusions from the z ^− mode. Despite being more extreme than prior SA intervals, its turbulent nature does not appear to be qualitatively different from previously observed streams. We conclude that this extreme low-dynamic-pressure solar wind interval (which has the potential for extreme space-weather conditions) is a large, steady structure spanning at least to 1 au.

IntroductionMars’ lack of a global magnetic field led to low expectations for auroral phenomena on the planet, but MAVEN observations showed auroral activity to be frequent, diverse in nature, and often global in scope. Subsequent observations by the Emirates Mars Mission [1] further expanded the breadth of observable types of aurora, and it is likely that the variety will increase further as observations expand. Figure 1 below shows three fundamentally different types of aurora on Mars. Ironically, Mars’ lack of a global field is actually responsible for most of the activity, which leads to a new perspective for non-magnetized objects in our solar system and beyond.Making Sense of Diverse Auroral ActivityEach of type of Mars aurora is a tracer for a different important process involving the interaction between solar influences and the near-Mars magnetic and charged particle environment. Originally, types of aurora were named for their resemblance to terrestrial or other types, with later forms named after their morphology, geographical location, precipitating particles, etc. The nomenclature became cumbersome, confusing, and not insightful to those not working in the field. At the same time, modeling showed that all types could fit into three categories based on the precipitating particles and their origins: solar energetic particles (SEPs), suprathermal electrons, and solar wind protons (see Figure 1). These distinctions usefully group the phenomena into clusters of phenomena observed and modelled similarly, and also allow for new varieties to be added.Figure 1. Three types of aurora on Mars, as observed by the Imaging UltraViolet Spectrograph (IUVS) on MAVEN (left and right images) and the Emirates Ultraviolet Spectrometer (EMUS) on the Emirates Mars Mission (center image). Each is diagnostic of a specific interaction between solar or internal influences and Mars’ magnetic and plasma environment. SEP Aurora on the Rise to Solar Max This presentation will focus on SEP aurora, the type of aurora most dependent on solar activity. MAVEN/IUVS discovered that the entire visible nightside of Mars can be engulfed in auroral emissions [Figure 1, left, and reference 2]. The phenomenon can also be studied in limb scan mode, which revealed that solar energetic particles can penetrate down to ~60 km altitude. Contemporaneous MAVEN/SEP observations of electrons up to 200 keV confirmed the correlation with solar activity. Some diffuse aurora events have been observed to last for days during extended solar events. Both SEP protons and electrons can be responsible [3]. SEP aurora events are currently occurring at the highest frequency of MAVEN’s 10 year mission. The phenomenon was discovered in 2014 during the declining phase of the solar cycle, and only two additional major events occurred in the following 7 years. Since August 2022, IUVS has observed 8 major events, half of which have occurred since February 2024 (Figure 2). (Additional SEP activity did occur throughout this period, but observations at those other times were not possible.) All auroral events are closely correlated with the arrival of SEP particles as measured by MAVEN’s SEP instrument. Figure 2. MAVEN/IUVS image of SEP aurora (also known as diffuse aurora) on 18 March 2024 during a space weather event. Both the bright limb and on-disk emission are attributed to auroral emission. The near-UV image of Mars’ south polar region in southern spring was obtained contemporaneously with the auroral portion of the image by alternating detector gain during nadir scanning. The substantial dataset of recent events will be ideal for comparative studies to determine (1) whether protons or electrons are responsible, and which energy ranges matter most; (2) how Mars’ hybrid magnetosphere responds to the SEP flux, and whether the auroral brightness is modulated by local structures or crustal magnetic fields. In additional to auroral science goals, our efforts aim to quantify how aurora can serve as a proxy for space weather hazard for human exploration of Mars. This leads to the ironic situation where the aurora may be so impressive it’s necessary to seek shelter against the radiation. Reaching Solar Max does not imply that auroral activity will soon decrease. In fact, the type of solar activity giving rise to SEP events may increase in the declining phase, with more burst of SEP aurora. MAVEN’s potential mission extension will be able to test this hypothesis. The Case for Visible Nightside Imaging from Orbit. Visible wavelength emissions are predicted to accompany UV emissions from SEP aurora, based on atomic and molecular physics with known branching ratios [4]. Oxygen green line emission is expected at 557 nm, as frequently seen at Earth. Brightnesses are expected to be detectable with visible wavelength cameras capable of long exposures. No orbital instruments on existing spacecraft have yet made detections, probably due to sensitivity limits in short exposures. Future Mars missions with instruments designed for nightside imaging offer tremendous low-cost potential for breakthrough observations in auroral science. Visible filter imaging of the aurora with conventional technology is likely to be orders of magnitude more sensitive than the complex and expensive slit-scanning spectral imagers in orbit at Mars today. In addition to the [OI] green line emission, SEP aurora should also cause emission near the blue end of the visible range, emanating from the FDB bands of CO2+. The recent discovery of visible-wavelength nightglow [5] offers another compelling target for nightside imaging. The M-MATISSE mission, currently in a competitive Phase A Study for an ESA M-class mission, carries such a camera [6] . Even if selected, missions beyond should also carry low-cost visible imagers optimized for the orbit, observational capabilities and science goals of the mission. References: [1] Lillis et al. (2022), GRL, doi: 10.1029/2022GL099820; [2] Schneider, et al. (2018). GRL, doi: 10.1029/ 2018GL077772. [3] Nakamura et al. (2020), JGR, doi: 10.1029/2021JA029914; [4] Gérard et al., (2015) JGR. 120, 6749–6765 doi: 10.1002/ 2015JA021150; [5] Gerard et al., Nat. Astr., 10.1038/s41550-023-02104-8; [6] Sanchez-Cano et al. (2023): doi 10.3389/fspas.2022.1101945

Scale-Dependent Dynamic Alignment (SDDA) in Elsässer field fluctuations is theorized to suppress nonlinearities and modulate the energy spectrum. Limited empirical evidence exists for SDDA within the solar wind turbulence's inertial range. We analyzed data from the WIND mission to assess the effects of compressibility, intermittency, and imbalance on SDDA. SDDA consistently appears at energy-containing scales, with a trend toward misalignment at inertial scales. Compressible fluctuations show no increased alignment; however, their impact on SDDA's overall behavior is minimal. The alignment angles inversely correlate with field gradient intensity, likely due to "anomalous" or "counterpropagating" wave packet interactions. This suggests that SDDA originates from mutual shearing of Elsässer fields during imbalanced (δz^±≫δz^∓) interactions. Rigorous thresholding on field gradient intensity reveals SDDA signatures across much of the inertial range. The scaling of Elsässer increments' alignment angle, Θ^z, steepens with increasing global Alfvénic imbalance, while the angle between magnetic and velocity field increments, Θ^ub, becomes shallower. Θ^ub only correlates with global Elsässer imbalance, steepening as the imbalance increases. Furthermore, increasing alignment in Θ^ub persists deep into the inertial range of balanced intervals but collapses at large scales for imbalanced ones. Simplified theoretical analysis and modeling of high-frequency, low-amplitude noise in the velocity field indicate significant impacts on alignment angle measurements even at very low frequencies, with effects growing as global imbalance increases.