The increasing demand for milk in India has driven dairy intensification, exposing farmers to the risk of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) transmission. Public livestock sector organisations, mandated to control bTB alongside others, are constrained by limited resources leading to the deployment of community resource persons. However, while the impact of community resource persons on technology transfer is well documented, their perspective on bTB and its implications remains underexplored. A cross-sectional survey of 149 community resource persons was conducted in Tamil Nadu, India, using a questionnaire. Results revealed that community resource persons had poor knowledge (2.20 per cent) of bTB, negative perceptions of control methods, and poor adoption among farmers. The social strata of community resource persons significantly influenced their perception (beta = 0.383, p < 0.01), while education and extension contact positively influenced adoption of practices. Tailored capacity-building programs for community resource persons from lower social strata and the establishment of model farms by educated community resource persons are recommended to promote awareness and control of bTB.

This paper explores the potential role of the private sector, particularly the crop protection industry, in enhancing emergency pest prevention, preparedness and response (EPPPR) in relation to invasive pests. By leveraging their position and knowledge, private companies can contribute significantly to mitigating pest-related risks, enabling sustainable responses. We outline a comprehensive framework for EPPPR, covering prevention, preparedness, early detection, emergency response and integrated pest management, and we discuss how the private sector can contribute to this framework.We highlight the value that greater private sector involvement could bring to emergency pest prevention, preparedness and early pest detection through its on-the-ground networks and data-sharing capabilities with national plant protection organisations. Additionally, we stress the importance of robust and agile regulatory frameworks and policies for creating an enabling environment for the effective management of emergency pest outbreaks. We also emphasise the potential opportunities provided by private sector investment in research and development in driving innovation in pest management technologies.By fostering partnerships with governments, international organisations, local communities and other stakeholders, the private sector can play a vital role in building a resilient agricultural system capable of withstanding pest challenges.

This study analyses the opportunities and pitfalls of using chatgroups for plant health systems. It also examines the conditions for strengthening chatroom functions and considers the possibility of replicating reported successes in healthcare settings to plant health systems. We use mixed qualitative methods, which include stakeholder surveys and observation of chatgroup activity interactions in Ghana, Kenya, Uganda and Sri Lanka. Our findings show that there is evidence of the benefits of chatgroups to human health which can be replicated in plant health. Replication should, however, not be a 'copy and paste' approach. This is due to the general lack of evidence-based guidelines and lessons learned to move beyond the initial adoption success of communication applications. Also, in practice, plant doctor chatgroups are generally much larger than groups in healthcare settings and it remains to be seen whether increasing chatroom activity could benefit specific plant health objectives; or whether it would lead to increased labour costs, and/or diminish the participation of plant doctors. One Health impact statement The article is relevant in a One Health context as it demonstrates that there is a lot to learn between sectors about interventions and approaches. The work used literature from human health interventions to shed light on how a similar intervention in plant health functioned and could be improved. It shows that if actors in the plant health sector had engaged early on with actors in the human health sector, they may have avoided pitfalls in the ways that chatgroups can be used to support plant health management. It is expected that human, animal and plant health sectors would benefit from the knowledge and recommendations in this article to establish new online chatgroups that can support transformative change.

Developing countries have recognised the need to strengthen their agricultural extension services as an engine for improving productivity, reaching marginalised, poor and female farmers and addressing new challenges, such as environmental degradation and climate change. However, structuring effective and viable extension systems remains a major challenge in most places. This paper studies the Plantwise extension programme in Kenya, an initiative that supports and increases collaboration among actors in the national plant health system, establishes and maintains a network of plant clinics - a physical interface between farmers and crop protection experts - to address the needs of smallholders, and collects key information in the process that can be used for informing policy and for monitoring and evaluation purposes. To assess the programme in Kenya, we conducted a longitudinal mixed-methods evaluation of the programme from 2014 to 2018. Our results show that Plantwise has altered the way the Government of Kenya addresses crop protection. The programme is innovative and improves knowledge at multiple levels. At the farm level, Plantwise has contributed to improvements in the use of agricultural practices, inputs and maize productivity, a major staple crop. The results show that the Plantwise approach is a reasonable alternative to other agricultural extension systems that support smallholder farmers.

We use a combination of a global desk review of the literature with information from an on-going action research in Kenya to provide insights into the main characteristics, benefits and shortfalls of business models for engaging women and young people in agricultural service provision in Africa. The findings demonstrate that the engagement of African women and young people in agricultural service provision is not a panacea to the challenges they face. However various business models have been successful in contributing to economic empowerment, to increasing entrepreneurial activities and to upskilling of women and young people engaged as service providers. Business models that are successful are place-based and people-focused, market-driven and focused on value chains. Challenges however abound due to various factors, hence for sustainability there is need for multi-sectoral inter-institutional collaboration that pulls in funding and which makes a case for private sector buy-in. Future research should focus on increasing the evidence base to understand if successes with inclusion of women and young people in agricultural service provision has an influence on emerging agricultural policy. Research should also rigorously assess the extent to which successful agricultural service provision business models are engendered, provide sufficient levels of renumeration and the extent to which they impact farmer outcomes.

In recent years, fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda, has emerged as one of the most serious invasive species in many countries across Africa, Asia and Oceania. The pest is causing extensive damage to maize production and the intensification of pesticide use. In this paper, we examined the effectiveness of three mass-extension channels (plant health rallies, radio drama and SMS) in enhancing farmers' knowledge and management of FAW and in increasing maize productivity. Applying matching techniques to data from 720 smallholder farmers and 1077 maize plots in Eastern Rwanda, we found that exposure to the information channels is significantly associated with increased knowledge outcomes, including knowledge of the correct identification of FAW and the use of cultural practices as the first resort to pest management. Moreover, the information channels showed positive effects on the adoption of environmentally friendly management practices. Generally, the treatment effects are larger for households exposed to multiple (especially all) channels, indicating complementary effects of the channels. We also found suggestive evidence that the information channels are associated with maize yield increases ranging from 10% to 34%, depending on the channel. Overall, the results imply that multi-channel information campaigns can be effective in enhancing farmers' knowledge on how to identify and sustainably manage the FAW pest. Our findings also suggest that while there is a growing popularity in the use of digital extension approaches to deliver timely information to farmers in a cost-effective manner, much greater gains can be achieved if they are combined with other low-cost face-to-face extension methods, such as plant health rallies.

Dairy farming in India is considered one of the pathways to moving out of poverty for more than 80 million marginalized rural households. However, there are challenges in productivity and production due to disease and other factors. In addition to these challenges the intensification in smallholder dairying likely to increase the incidence of bovine Tuberculosis (bTB) and paves way for potential public health risks due its zoonotic potential. Currently information is available with regard to knowledge, perception and adoption of practices associated with control of bTB transmission from among farmers and there is absence of information regarding the understanding bTB among livestock community resource persons. This demands an understanding of the knowledge and perception of community-level livestock resource persons who are engaged in livestock extension services for farmers, regarding bovine tuberculosis and consequence of knowledge and perception of community resource persons on their operational areas. Currently India has 42913 women community level livestockresource persons as a part of National Rural Livelihood Mission. In this study, knowledge, perceptions and practices associated with tuberculosis were studied and analyzed among 149 community level workers. The results showed above workers had limited knowledge (2.20%) on Bovine tuberculosis. Added they had poor perception with factors associated with control of bovine tuberculosis. Further adoption of risk-prone practices such as drinking of un-pasteurized milk, poor sanitization practices after handling animal among cattle owning community resources persons and also in their operational areas of which may increase the risk of transmission to the common public, including farmers. The contact with livestock extension system has not improved the knowledge on zoonotic potential and perception of zoonotic control associated practices of btB as similar to human health system which is revealed in the past studies. Thus there is imperative need to integrate both human and livestock system in communication strategies on btB. Furthermore caste, education, contact with extension agency and farming experience of community level workers influences on perception and adoption of zoonotic control practices. This needs to be considered during communication programmes / technology transfer activities which has potential to influence perception and on zoonotic control practices associated with bTB.

Using qualitative methods, this study assessed the stakeholders and management processes involved in locust outbreaks in China, including factors influencing the use of biopesticides. Study findings show that China has an integrated national locust response protocol, which involves various institutions from all administrative levels of the government. The process is inherently highly complex but efficient, with multisectoral agencies working closely together to prevent and/or manage locust outbreaks. In addition, the process has been successful in combating recent outbreaks, due to dedicated government funding, decisive administrative and technical actions, and the empowerment of local government administration. This is the case with the county level acting as a ‘first-responder’ that is capacitated financially and technically to respond to a locust invasion in their jurisdiction. Additionally, study findings show that despite the availability of biopesticides in local markets, their use is dampened by inadequate information about market availability, negative perceptions by decision makers about their efficacy, and concerns about their costs, as well as limited knowledge of their application techniques. Actions are therefore needed by relevant authorities to enhance stakeholder awareness of biopesticide market availability, efficacy, and field application processes. Future areas of research should focus on modelling the expected impact and cost effectiveness of chemicals vs. biopesticides, thus increasing the evidence base for promoting biopesticide use.

Background The African continent is known for high entrepreneurial activity, especially in the agricultural sector. Despite this, the continent's economic development is below expectations, due to numerous factors constraining the growth and sustainability of agricultural SMEs. These constraints have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this study was to understand the pathways through which the pandemic affected agri-SMEs, with specific focus on assessing the differentiated effects arising from the size of the agri-SME and the gender of the owner-manager. Methods Data was collected from over 100 agri-SMEs, ranging in size from sole proprietorships with one employee to agri-SMEs employing up to 100 people, in six African countries. Mixed methods were used to analyse the data with changes in business operations arising from changing market access, regimented health and safety guidelines and constrained labour supply assessed using visualisations and descriptive statistics. Logistic regression modelling was employed to determine the set of variables contributing to agri-SME business downturn during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results All surveyed agri-SMEs were negatively affected by COVID-19-associated restrictions with the size of the firm and gender of the owner-managers resulting in differentiated impacts. The smallest agri-SMEs, mainly owner-managed by women, were more likely to experience disruptions in marketing their goods and maintaining their labour supply. Larger agri-SMEs made changes to their business operations to comply with government guidelines during the pandemic and made investments to manage their labour supply, thus sustaining their business operations. In addition, logistic regression modelling results show that financing prior to the pandemic, engaging in primary agricultural production, and being further from urban centres significantly influenced the likelihood of a firm incurring business losses. Conclusions These findings necessitate engendered multi-faceted agri-SME support packages that are tailored for smaller-sized agri-SMEs. Any such support package should include support for agri-SMEs to develop sustainable marketing strategies and help them secure flexible financing that considers payment deferrals and debt moratorium during bona fide market shocks such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Pesticides are an important and widely used tool for crop protection, but they also pose significant risks to agricultural sustainability, human health and the environment. In this paper, we examine whether mass media campaigns can help improve pesticide knowledge and change pesticide use behaviour among smallholder farmers in Rwanda and Uganda. We also assess the individual and combined effects of the campaign channels, which include interactive radio, plant health rallies, mobile SMS and video screenings. Applying a doubly robust method to survey data from 1327 maize-producing households across the two countries, we find that the mass media campaigns are significantly associated with improved farmer knowledge of pesticide risks and safety precautions. While the campaigns appear not to have discouraged the use of synthetic pesticides, they are significantly associated with increased adoption of safer alternatives to pesticides, including sustainable integrated pest management practices. The campaigns are also significantly correlated with increased use of protective equipment against pesticide exposure in both countries and reduced incidence of pesticide-related illnesses in Rwanda. We conclude that mass media campaigns (particularly using multiple complementary channels) can be effective in enhancing farmers’ knowledge about pesticide risks and safety measures, and promote the adoption of safer pest management strategies.

Sustainable agricultural intensification (SAI) practices have been developed with the aim of increasing agricultural productivity. However, most of them are not achieving their potential because of low adoption, linked to limited extension support to make them known and accessible by end-users. This paper reviews the effectiveness of the Africa Soil Health Consortium (ASHC) extension-based campaigns, contributing knowledge for formulating novel and cost-effective extension approaches. Results show that ASHC campaigns achieved scale of farmer reach and spurred adoption of promoted SAI technologies. Adoption levels for a range of practices were at least 20%, which favourably compares with reported adoption rates for the training and visit extension approach; 1-7% and 11-21% for complex and simple practices respectively. In comparison to a single channel, exposure to multiple communication approaches was associated with higher uptake of promoted practices and technologies, and also increased participation of men, women and youth, by addressing inherent differences in access to, proficiency with, and preferences of communication channels. Success factors associated with ASHC campaigns were; the deployment of multiple and complementary information channels; harnessing public-private partnerships to establish sustainable input supply chains; and development of localized content and fit-for-purpose information materials to facilitate information diffusion.

This study examines sustainability and gender dynamics of coffee value-chain development intervention in Ethiopia. The data were collected from male and female farmers and other stakeholders using key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and a questionnaire survey. The study found that some of the introduced technologies/practices were adopted and sustained whereas others were dropped or adapted depending on technical, institutional, and socio-economic factors. The value-chain intervention was generic and not gender-sensitive. Although the intervention generated positive changes and benefits for all household members (by improving coffee quality, market access, and their income), it had mixed outcomes for women. Although women were not primarily targeted by the intervention, their increased involvement in coffee harvesting and processing fostered women’s skills, confidence, and decision-making power. However, some of the new technologies/practices required additional labour, while others were labour saving and eased their work. As a result of increasing the wholesale trading of coffee, the role for marketing largely shifted to men. This study underscores the need for a proper gender analysis and embedding gender-sensitive approaches in designing development interventions to ensure women’s fair representation, and thus equitable and sustainable benefits. Such efforts should entail a paradigm shift from production to promoting women’s role and integration into the entire value chain, as well as improving their access to productive resources and services. Moreover, value-chain development interventions should consider technical, institutional, social, and economic factors that could influence their effectiveness and sustainability.

Background Quality seed is at the core of the technological packages needed to increase crop production, nutrition, and rural wellbeing. However, smallholder farmers in Tanzania have limited access to affordable quality seeds, and over 90% of seed sown is saved by farmers from previous harvests, though its quality is often poor. The Good Seed Initiative (GSI) aimed to enhance access to quality African indigenous vegetable (AIV) seed in Tanzania, through the promotion of farmer seed production, using two models—contract farming and Quality Declared Seed (QDS). This study assessed post-GSI project sustainability factors and explored the prospects for replicating the approach in a wider regional context. Methods The study was conducted in Arusha and Dodoma, targeting locations where the GSI project was implemented. Qualitative tools employing focus group discussions (73 men, 69 women), and key informant interviews were used for data collection. Results Farmer seed production under both models continued to thrive, creating avenues for income diversification and contributing over 50% to household incomes. Farmer seed production contributed to increased availability of quality seed for vegetable growers, especially in central Tanzania that is less served by the formal sector. However, QDS production was challenged by a lack of access to foundation seed, inspections, and seed testing services, which are key for quality seed production. Conclusions Results reveal unequivocally that farmer seed production offers a potentially sustainable solution to the problem of seed supply while providing income benefits for seed producers. The market-based approach used by the project and partnerships with the formal sector, coupled with stimulation of demand through nutritional awareness campaigns, were strong contributory factors to the survival of farmer seed production. Farmer-led seed systems, especially QDS, deserve support from the government to develop a tailored and appropriate seed system that meets the ever-evolving needs of smallholder farmers. Adoption gender-inclusive approaches, particularly in contract farming is paramount to benefit women as much as men.

Recent outbreaks of crop pests such as fall armyworm and desert locusts are threatening food security and have spurred increased use of pesticides in sub-Saharan Africa. While pesticides can prevent crop losses, they can also have adverse effects on human health and the environment, if not used judiciously. In this article, we examine whether plant clinics-an innovative extension approach of providing plant health diagnostic and advisory services to smallholder farmers-can enhance judicious use of pesticides, measured by intensity of pesticide use, adoption of alternative and more environmentally friendly pest management practices, safe pesticide use practices, and incidence of pesticide-related illness. We use data from a sample of 1474 farm households in Rwanda and Zambia. Propensity score matching estimates suggest that although plant clinic participants exhibit a higher probability of opting for pesticides for pest control, they do not use pesticides intensively and are more likely to adopt alternatives to chemical pest control. On the other hand, plant clinic users and non-users are equally likely to use restricted pesticides and inappropriate methods of disposing of pesticide wastes, which can lead to pesticide poisoning. Overall, our results imply that the plant clinic extension approach can promote sustainable pest management in smallholder agriculture, but additional training of plant clinic staff and clients on pesticide safety would be necessary.

In 2016, a study was conducted in Tanzania to assess the impact of radio and SMS in scaling-up smallholder participation in legume-based sustainable agricultural intensification (SAI) practices and technologies. The study aimed to answer the following research questions: (i) does participation in the campaign enhance farmers' knowledge of legume-based sustainable agricultural intensification practices and technologies? (ii) what is the impact of the campaign on the adoption of legume-based sustainable agricultural intensification practices and technologies?; (iii) does exposure to multiple ICT-enabled channels result in larger gains (in terms of knowledge and adoption) than exposure to only one channel? (iv) is it more cost-effective to use radio or SMS alone or use them in combination? The results show that both awareness and adoption are boosted if SMS supports radio campaigns. However, radio alone is the most cost-effective approach. Each dollar spent on the radio campaign results in 2.1 farmers that have adopted at least one new practice, compared with 0.5 farmers for SMS and 0.4 farmers for radio and SMS combined. Other factors were also important in facilitating uptake of legume-based SAI practices, such as gender, age, education and land size, but were not statistically significant when rated against the communication channels used.

An assessment of the challenges and capacity gaps in smallholder access to digital extension and advisory services (EAS) was made by surveying 197 female and 239 male farmers in Kenya and Uganda. Non-digital extension approaches remain dominant but at least 78% of farmers accessed EAS from electronic sources dominated by radio. This is attributed to the fact that ownership of radios was more widespread than of other digital devices. Challenges that particularly limit the use of digital services included low digital literacy and prohibitive cost of internet and mobile devices. Female and elderly farmers were more likely to report these challenges than their counterparts. Logistic regression model results show that ownership of digital devices, participation in post-production activities, and access to extension were enablers of digital EAS use. Farmers mentioned gaps in obtaining information on crop pest/disease diagnosis and management, fertilizer application, pesticide safety and quality seed. Given the diversity in smallholder technological capabilities and information needs, the recommendations made include integration of digital communication within multimode advisory services that use different but linked communication channels, continued farmer digital innovation capacity enhancement, and participatory design approaches that deliver relevant and actionable information for inclusive scaling of extension activities.

This chapter reports on the functioning of online chat groups in the context of agricultural advisory services. We draw insights from the experiences of the Plantwise programme, led by the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI), embracing online chat groups to support frontline advisory staff, and national and international plant health specialists. Emerging as a spontaneous bottom-up innovation initiated by frontline advisory staff, these chat groups have matured into avenues for knowledge-sharing to support plant health systems. Through continuous monitoring, backstopping, and rapid diagnosis of emerging pests the groups played a key role in providing timely pest diagnoses, quality advice of measures, and served as an early warning system. However, to sustainably structure, embed, and support the functioning of these monitoring and backstopping chat groups, we study and reflect upon the composition, interaction, and complementary role of Plantwise and other chat groups in the pluralistic agricultural advisory systems of Africa. Using the lessons learnt we then consider how they can be more deliberately used and integrated to support service delivery.

Extension services play a crucial role in providing farmers with the tools and knowledge they need to increase their yields, improve their food security and livelihoods and build resilience against climate shocks.While private sector-led extension services are increasingly complementing government efforts in many countries, their models and approaches remain widely undocumented.This working paper used a literature review approach and key informant interviews to develop a framework describing patterns/models used by agribusinesses in providing extension services, with a focus on documenting how services are organized and funded as well as the merits and demerits of each approach.The organization of Agribusiness-based Advisory Services (ABAS) is largely influenced by the context, purpose and capacities of the agribusiness.Among others, factors such as the size of the agribusiness, orientation towards profits or social returns, specific requirements of commodities involved and markets targeted play an important role in defining models.Six implementation models are described: i) advisory services by agribusiness' own staff, ii) working through lead farmers (farmer extensionists), iii) working through agrovets, iv) one-stop-shop networks, v) commercial farm-based advisory services and vii) sub-contracting advisory services.A separate chapter briefly reviews models of private advisory services provision by independent service providers.The study observed that in general, farmers reached were commercially oriented farmers able to invest in inputs and handle the associated risks, except for enterprises sourcing bulk products such as cassava or grains.It was also noted that many socalled "private" sector advisory services continue to rely on public-sector (co-) funding, often from donors channelled through third parties using a contract approach.

Providing smallholder farmers with support through conventional government extension approaches is challenging as the number of extension agents is decreasing. At the same time, new information and communication technologies (ICTs), such as short message services (SMS) sent via mobile phones, show considerable promise to complement existing extension services. In the UP-scaling Technology in Agriculture through Knowledge and Extension (UPTAKE) Project, ICTs were used to create awareness and increase uptake and adoption of agricultural innovations by maize farmers in Tanzania. Two SMS-based maize campaigns were implemented during the 2016/2017 and 2017/2018 cropping seasons in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. Prior to the start of the campaigns, formative research to determine maize production knowledge, practices and challenges was conducted in Mbeya and Songwe Region. After the campaign a telephone survey, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were conducted. During the campaign, about 3.8 million SMS were disseminated to over 55,000 farmers. 73% were male, 19% owned smart phones and 86% farmed maize on up to 1.2 hectares of land. Farmers reported maize production challenges as: unreliable markets, inadequate extension services, pest outbreaks and lack of knowledge to identify counterfeit inputs particularly seeds and fertilizers. The UPTAKE mobile SMS campaign was a new approach to agricultural extension in this area. A telephone survey amongst a sample of farmers who received the SMS revealed that 53% of respondents considered that this was now their preferred as a source of information compared to traditional sources including neighbours and family members, demonstration plots, agricultural extension workers and radios. Key lessons learnt relate to management of databases of farmer contacts, importance of participatory processes in developing content and designing SMS campaigns, and the need for flexibility and promptness in responding to emerging threats such as delayed rains and outbreaks of pests. Good practices like buy in and authorizations from the government administrative structures and compliance with country’s regulations on communication are integral to the success of ICT projects.