The development of a non-contract ultrasonic technique is reported for online quality control of noodle dough without compromising food safety during production. The technique uses airborne ultrasound to measure mechanical properties of the dough without touching or deforming it; thus, food safety cannot be endangered during processing by contamination arising from direct contact with monitoring equipment. Measured mechanical properties are related to the texture of the final product, thereby providing information during processing that is relevant to product quality. The technique was first assessed in laboratory experiments and then tested online during production runs on a pilot plant noodle sheeting line. It was found that differences in mechanical properties of noodle doughs resulting from changes in formulation or processing conditions can be distinguished, and that flaws arising from thickness fluctuations in noodle sheets can be detected. These offline and online experiments show the feasibility of using non-contact ultrasound for real-time hygienic quality monitoring of noodles at critical control points in the sheeting process, thereby providing rapid feedback for improvements in process design and control.

Bubbles, found in a huge variety of food products, are known to afford desirable quality attributes, especially those related to texture, mouthfeel and taste. However, the presence of bubbles and their effects on wheat flour noodles is an aspect that has been, until now, largely overlooked, despite the positive and negative connotations of bubbly inclusions on Asian noodle quality. X-rays from a synchrotron source (Biomedical Imaging and Therapy facility at the Canadian Light Source) were used to rapidly and non-destructively acquire tomographic images of noodle dough. Appropriate image analysis protocols were used to determine the bubble size distribution, the orientation of bubbles, and their position within the dough sheet. The effect of processing (one or multiple lamination steps) on bubble properties in the dough that was subsequently sheeted (gradual elongation and reduction in thickness) was investigated. Bubble size distributions, well captured by lognormal distribution function, showed that the lamination process induced bubble entrapment and reduction in bubble size. Bubbles were found to be flat, elongated and oriented in the sheeting direction, this effect being less for doughs laminated ten times (90° rotations between lamination steps). Interestingly, a gradient in concentration of bubbles within the dough sheet was found from the noodle core to the sheet edges. Aging effects were also apparent. This first non-destructive study of bubbles in wheat-flour noodle dough provides a more complete knowledge of the dough sheet's internal structure, and how it originates via processing, and this has repercussions on the overall quality of Asian noodles.

An ultrasonic technique (1MHz) was employed to investigate the capability of ultrasound to evaluate barley -glucan (BBG) supplementation (0%, 2.5% and 5%) on the mechanical properties of raw noodles. The noodles were subjected to a 20% strain using a texture analyzer in which a custom holder for ultrasonic transducers enabled stress relaxation and ultrasonic propagation to be observed over 300s. Ultrasonic velocity and attenuation increased and decreased, respectively, with an increase in noodle BBG content. Similarly, the longitudinal storage modulus M increased, while the long-time values of the longitudinal loss modulus M decreased, as the BBG content was increased. The stress relaxation parameter %SR20s decreased significantly, while Peleg's K1 and K2 values increased with increasing BBG content, supporting the ultrasonic findings that the noodles displayed an enhanced resistance to deformation with an increase of BBG content. The ultrasonic technique discerned changes in the mechanical behavior of functional food products. Practical Applications This research describes the use of a relatively inexpensive ultrasonic technique to discriminate and quantify desirable improvements in raw Asian white salted noodles on the basis of their fundamental rheological parameters. The test is rapid and allows the calculation of multiple parameters to highlight the texture benefits of adding BBG to noodle flour.

The commercial value of small grains such as wheat and barley is determined by their overall quality. Grading systems established by the major countries exporting these grains establish maximum tolerances for various contaminants and damage factors to the grain kernels. Grading factors are mainly visual characteristics. Collectively, the grading factors describe grain quality and safety as affected by growing conditions, handling and storage practices. Human visual inspection is the current method of grain quality assessment, which can be subjective and inconsistent. Alternative instrumental approaches to quality assurance are constantly being researched. Hyperspectral imaging has been used effectively for the detection and quantification of grain damage due to various grading factors such as mildew, fusarium, sprouting and green immature seeds.Hyperspectral systems, while effective, are expensive research tools. Multispectral systems using a few wavelengths provide practically viable, less expensive and simpler imaging solutions. A multispectral system using three band-pass filters successfully detected and scored green barley kernels. Development of fast, accurate and low-cost multispectral systems is expected to have a profound effect on the acceptance of instrumental methods of grain grading by the grain industry.

Flours, representing the three major classes of Canadian wheat used for the production of noodles, were processed into fresh, Chinese-style, yellow alkaline noodles (YAN) with and without (1w/w, fwb) the cross-linking enzyme transglutaminase (TG). The flours, YAN-TG and YAN+TG were sequentially extracted to remove albumins and globulins, followed by a series of 50% propanol extractions (±4% DTT) and 50% propanol +4% DTT +1% acetic acid to ensure removal of all extractable gliadin and glutenin components. Reverse-phase (RP) HPLC analyses of all propanol extracts were performed and the change in protein composition and distribution reported. Raw YAN, ±TG, were simultaneously evaluated for their fundamental rheological characteristics using ultrasound and stress relaxation testing. Significant changes in the distribution of protein within the various propanol extracts were observed when the flours were processed into YAN±TG. The amount of unextractable protein increased by as much as ∼3-fold in YAN+TG, and ∼2-fold in YAN-TG, relative to that present in their respective source flour. Significant differences were observed within and between the YAN variety samples for the longitudinal modulus and the tan delta, when processed ±TG. Significant correlations (p=0.05) were observed between protein composition, ultrasonic and stress relaxation parameters.

ABSTRACTSoba noodles were prepared from brown tartary, green testa and two common buckwheat variety flours with Canada Western Red Spring flour (13.0% protein) and a lower protein (11.5%), but stronger dough strength, Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR) flour. Empirical, fundamental and the new Elastic Index (EI) parameter all demonstrated that the lower protein, stronger gluten CPSR variety 5701, yielded superior textural attributes. Tartary buckwheat flour noodle blends' empirical texture results (maximum cutting stress, resistance to compression and recovery) indicated they produced soba noodles with superior texture than the other buckwheat flours because of the lower level of dietary fiber, elevated starch content and lower cooking water uptake. Fundamental tests, such as stress relaxation percent at 20 s, extent of relaxation (K2), loading work and unloading work of tartary buckwheat noodles showed significant differences from the other buckwheat noodles. Among soba noodles, tartary buckwheat noodles had significantly greater (P < 0.05) elastic‐like properties (higher K2 and EI). The EI parameter was significantly correlated (P < 0.005) with all empirical and fundamental rheological parameters.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSWhereas noodle manufacturers prefer local sensory panels to evaluate the texture characteristics of new noodle products, such evaluations provide little insight into the underlying reasons for the panelist preferences. Traditional empirical mechanical tests – maximum cutting stress, recovery and resistance to compression – have not proven to offer the level of discernment required by the industry. Fundamental mechanical properties offer the ability to provide improved discrimination, as well as an understanding of the role of the biochemical components in addressing the noodle's texture.

Hatcher, D.W., Anderson, M.J., Clear, R.M., Gaba, D.G. and Dexter, J.E. 2003. Fusarium head blight: Effect on white salted and yellow alkaline noodle properties. Can. I Plant Sci. 83: 11-21. Composite samples of Canada Western Red Winter wheat (CWRW) with varying levels of Fusarium head blight damage (0.5-9.6%) were prepared from the 1998 Western Canadian harvest survey and milled to yield both patent (60% extraction) and straight grade (similar to76%) flours. The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) levels in the flours ranged from 0.21 to 2.6 ppm with no significant influence due to flour extraction. No differences were attributable to Fusarium damage (FD) in the amount of work required to sheet either yellow alkaline (YA) or white salted (WS) noodles. The color of the raw (YA) noodles was adversely affected by FD as a significant loss in noodle brightness (L*) and an increase. in redness (a*) were observed for noodles prepared from both patent and straight-grade flour. Straight grade YA noodles,prepared from wheat with FD levels above acceptable limits for milling grades, displayed a significant loss in yellowness (b*) after aging for 24 h. Differences in noodle brightness of raw WS noodles were observed between the control and 9.6% FD samples for both patent and straight grade noodles at 24 h. Analysis of YA and WS noodles indicated a significant linear relationship between-the number of specks and the quantity of FD in the wheat. YA and WS noodles displayed significant loss in cooked noodle texture with increasing FD levels. Maximum cutting stress and recovery declined with increasing FD for both noodle types whether made from patent or straight grade flour. Maximum wheat FD tolerances below 2% are required in order to ensure optimum noodle quality.

Low-intensity ultrasound was evaluated as a means to detect changes in the mechanical properties of yellow alkaline noodle (YAN) dough prepared with different formula ingredients. Experimental samples were also evaluated using stress relaxation (SR) testing for comparative purposes. Results showed that ultrasonic velocity and attenuation increased and decreased (p < 0.05), respectively, with an increase in NaCl concentration (1–3%, fwb), or the inclusion of transglutaminase (2%) to the YAN dough formula. These changes in dough formulation resulted in YAN dough of increased mechanical strength, as confirmed by changes (p < 0.05) in longitudinal mechanical moduli. The velocity, attenuation and storage mechanical modulus obtained from ultrasonic experiments were significantly correlated with the maximum stress detected by SR in the YAN samples. The ultrasonic technique proved to be a simple reliable method for ascertaining and discriminating fundamental mechanical properties in YAN.

The effect of cooking on levels of nutrients and anti-nutritional factors in beans and chickpeas was investigated. Significant (p<0.05) variation existed among the beans and chickpeas with respect to their crude protein, starch, soluble dietary fiber (SDF), insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), total dietary fiber (TDF), resistant starch (RS), trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), mineral, phytic acid, tannin, sucrose and oligosaccharide (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) contents. Cooking beans and chickpeas in water significantly increased protein, starch, SDF, IDF, TDF, Mn and P contents (on a dry weight basis), whereas reduced ash, K, Mg, TIA, tannin, sucrose and oligosaccharide contents were observed. Colored beans (black, cranberry, dark red kidney, pinto and small red bean) contained tannins, whereas little tannin in white-colored beans (great northern and white pea bean) and chickpeas (Desi and Kabuli type) was detected.

ABSTRACTCanada Western Amber Durum wheat cultivars (4), Canada Western Red Spring (1), and Canada Western Hard White Spring (1) wheat were grown at three sites in 2007 to evaluate the effect of genotype (G) and environment (E) on the quality of yellow alkaline noodles (YAN). YAN were evaluated for color, appearance, and cooked texture. Brightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) of YAN made from durum cultivars were significantly higher than common wheat. Durum flour yellow pigment content was approximately fourfold greater than common wheat while noodle speckiness was approximately half of CWRS at 2 hr with environment accounting for >75% of the variance for each parameter. Resistance to compression (RTC) and recovery (REC) of cooked durum alkaline noodles were equivalent or superior to common wheat noodles even when lower grade durum wheat flour was used. In conclusion, cooked durum noodle texture parameters were all significantly influenced by genotype and environment, with environment accounting for 66–71% of their variance.

ABSTRACTDurum wheat straight‐grade flour samples, representing the cultivars Commander and Strongfield, a composite cargo mixture of Canada Western Amber Durum cultivars and a Japanese commercial durum flour were used to make yellow alkaline noodles. A Canada Western Red Spring common wheat composite straight‐grade flour was included in the study for comparative purposes. Alkaline noodles were prepared using 1% w/w kansui reagent (sodium and potassium carbonates, 9:1) and stored for 1, 2, 3 and 7 days at 4°C to duplicate a normal convenience store operation. The raw noodle color of the durum alkaline noodles exhibited significantly better noodle brightness, L*, and yellowness, b*, as compared to noodles prepared from common wheat at all storage periods. The number of discolored specks in the durum flour based noodles was significantly lower as well as significantly lighter than those of common wheat at all time intervals. Noodles prepared from Commander, Strongfield, or the cargo composite flours displayed significantly lower water uptake during cooking than both the commercial durum flour and the common wheat noodles. The commercial durum flour noodles displayed the thinnest cooked noodles, while the common wheat flour noodles were the thickest. Evaluation of cooked noodle texture, immediately after production and subsequent storage of the raw noodles at 4°C for 1, 2 and 3 days before cooking showed a general increase in maximum cutting stress (MCS) with storage. Noodles prepared from Commander flour consistently display MCS values exceeding those of CWRS as well as the highest resistance to compression (RTC) and recovery (REC) measurements. The visual improvements in noodle brightness, enhanced yellowness, reduced speck numbers and darkness in combination with equivalent to improved cooked noodle texture attributes compared with common wheat flour suggests that durum flours are an ideal material for fresh, refrigerated yellow alkaline noodles.

The insoluble fiber (IDF), soluble fiber (SDF) and total dietary fiber (TDF) contents of six field pea (Pisum sativum L.) genotypes from five growing locations in Saskatchewan in the 2006 and 2007 growing seasons were analyzed to investigate the possible effect of genotype, environment and year on fiber content. Samples were analyzed using the enzymatic–gravimetric method of fiber analysis. Growing location had a significant effect (p<0.0001) on IDF, SDF and TDF content. Genotype had a strong effect (p<0.0001) on both IDF and TDF content, while having no significant effect (p=0.40) on SDF content. Crop year displayed a significant effect on SDF and TDF (p<0.0001) content while having a smaller effect on IDF content (p<0.01). Green cotyledon genotypes exhibited significantly higher IDF and TDF contents (p<0.05) than did yellow genotypes. Significant genotype×location (p<0.05) and location×year (p<0.001) interaction terms were observed for TDF content.

The effect of cooking and dehulling on nutrients and anti-nutritional factors of several varieties of lentils (Lens culinaris) was investigated. Significant (p<0.05) variations existed among the lentil varieties with respect to their crude protein, starch, ash, soluble dietary fiber (SDF), insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), total dietary fiber (TDF), resistant starch (RS), trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), minerals, phytic acid, tannins, sucrose and oligosaccharides (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) content. Cooking lentils in boiling water significantly increased protein, starch, IDF, TDF, resistant starch, Ca, Cu and Mn content, whereas reduced ash, Fe, K, Mg, P, Zn, TIA, phytic acid, tannins, sucrose and oligosaccharides were observed. Dehulling (removal of seed coat) resulted in a significant increase in protein, starch, resistant starch, K, P, phytic acid, stachyose and verbascose content, however, a significant decrease in SDF, IDF, TDF, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn and tannin content was observed.

Established methods that model stress relaxation (SR) behaviour in foods are regarded as semi-empirical due to their inability to account for the relaxation occurring at loading on the food’s early relaxation response. This report assessed a hereditary function based on a four-term Prony series to model the effect of deformation history on the SR behaviour of yellow alkaline (Chinese) noodles (YAN). YAN were manufactured from red spring (CWRS) and amber durum (CWAD) wheat flours, with or without cysteine (200ppm), so that YAN with distinct viscoelastic behaviour could be obtained. Results showed that the hereditary function successfully described the varying-strain and constant-strain response of YAN. CWRS noodles were firmer but had a lower elastic-like behaviour than CWAD noodles. SR spectra showed that cysteine weakened the mechanical behaviour of CWRS YAN possibly by lowering the molecular weight of its underlying protein network. Cysteine had little effect on the mechanical properties of CWAD YAN.

ABSTRACT Three patent flours, each possessing three different levels of starch damage were prepared from a single hard white spring wheat. Each flour was sieved to yield three flours with different particle size distributions (85–110, 110–132, 132–183 μm). Raw alkaline noodles were prepared from the nine flours using either 1% w/w kansui (sodium and potassium carbonates in 9:1 ratio) or 1% w/w sodium hydroxide. Uniaxial stress relaxation parameters percent stress relaxation (SR%), initial rate of relaxation ( k 1 ) and the extent of relaxation ( k 2 ) were measured on the raw noodles immediately after production ( t = 0 min) and at 60 min. Raw noodles after resting for 60 min were optimally cooked and stress relaxation parameters were measured. Raw noodles at t = 0 min exhibited SR%, k 1 , and k 2 that were significantly ( P < 0.0001) influenced by both the degree of starch damage and the type of alkaline reagent used. Flour particle size only influenced SR% and k 1 ( P < 0.025) but had no impact on k 2 . In raw noodles aged for 60 min, both SR% and k 2 were significantly influenced by alkaline reagent, particle size, and starch damage ( P < 0.01) while k 1 was only affected by the degree of starch damage ( P < 0.0001). Cooked noodle SR parameters were all significantly ( P < 0.0001) influenced by alkaline reagent, particle size, and the degree of starch damage. Cooked noodles prepared from starch with low damaged flours within any given particle size range, regardless of the type of alkali employed, yielded the most rheologically elastic‐like (firmer) noodles. Two potential mechanisms by which the degree of starch damage influences noodle elastic like texture are discussed.

ABSTRACT Durum wheat samples (three varieties), milled to yield straight‐grade and patent flours, were processed into YANs. CWHWS and CWRS flours, customarily employed to make noodles, were included for comparative purposes. Uniaxial stress relaxation parameters, %SR, K1 and K2, derived from Peleg's model, were determined for all cooked noodles. Analysis of variance indicated a significant durum sample effect (P < 0.0001) on all three parameters. Significant differences (P = 0.05) were observed among all three CWHWS parameters and the durum flour samples, but not for CWRS. Significant correlations were detected among the three stress relaxation parameters and empirical texture measurements: RTC, REC and MCS. Flour yield exhibited a significant effect (P = 0.05) on %SR, K1 and K2, which was not detected using the empirical texture measurements. The uniaxial stress relaxation test provides a complementary, discriminating method for YAN texture measurement.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSThis describes the use of uniaxial compression to characterize and discriminate Asian noodle quality texture parameters on the basis of rheological principles. It demonstrates the discriminatory power of three parameters to discern similar noodle flour sources. The technique and parameters are simple to calculate and are well correlated with traditional empirical texture measurements.

Yellow alkaline noodles (YAN) were prepared from durum and hard white wheat flour blends and evaluated for noodle color, appearance and cooked noodle texture. Raw noodle brightness, L∗, and yellowness, b∗, improved significantly with durum flour addition while significant increases in a∗ values were observed at both 2h and 24h. The very low noodle speck count of white wheat noodles remained constant over the 24h period at any durum flour addition. Noodle bite, MCS, decreased with the addition of durum flour, resistance to compression (RTC) remained equivalent to the hard white flour control while an associated improvement in cooked noodle recovery (REC) was observed. The study indicates that addition of durum flour at even the 25% level, offers a viable product with improved colour characteristics, consistent RTC and improved REC textural attributes. Uniaxial stress relaxation parameters of cooked noodles significantly correlated with the empirical texture measurements.

A new procedure for describing and discriminating the stress relaxation behaviour of soft solid foods was investigated using yellow alkaline noodles (YAN) as a model system. YAN were prepared from Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS), Canada Western Hard White Spring (CWHWS) and Canada Western Amber Durum (CWAD) wheat flours (∼74% milling yield) using a 1%w/w kansui solution. Analysis of normalized stress relaxation data on cooked alkaline noodles using a method based on the Wiechert mechanical model revealed that the new parameters S∗, area under the curve, and P∗, the residual stress after long relaxation times, were more effective discriminators of stress relaxation behaviour than Peleg’s k1 and k2 parameters. Yellow alkaline noodles made from CWRS and CWAD wheat flour had significantly more elastic-like behaviour (S∗=0.691 and 0.700, and P∗=0.629 and 0.638, respectively) than noodles made from CWHWS (S∗=0.673 and P∗=0.600).