Soil color has historically been estimated visually, but inaccuracies with this method have been documented, including disagreement in evaluators, color blindness, and differences in physical color books due to weathering. As new technologies become available to soil scientists, a reliable digital method to determine soil color in the field could offer a solution to these inaccuracies. This research aimed to assess if visual estimates of soil matrix color from 111 soil horizons differed from digital measurements of Munsell soil color across three South Carolina regions. Visual estimates of soil color were conducted using Munsell color books. The XRite Capsure gave digital measurements in Munsell notation specific for soils. The absolute difference between hues was similar among assessment methods. Visual estimates of color value and chroma were statistically greater than digital measurements. However, color values and chromas were less than one chip different, suggesting no practical difference between the two assessment methods. Utilizing a digital soil color assessment tool can assist with training and validate human estimates.

Determining Munsell soil color in the field is subject to environmental conditions, including soil water content (SWC) and light intensity. New digital spectral technology designed for determining soil color may offer accurate assessments regardless of environmental conditions. This study was conducted to determine the impacts of SWC and light on visual observations and digital measurements of soil color value and chroma, the two color components most important for soil use interpretations for siting and designing onsite wastewater systems. Munsell color was measured using the XRite Capsure™ and visually using Munsell Color Books on 111 soil horizons from three South Carolina regions. While, in general, higher color values and lower chromas were determined from oven dried peds in comparison to field moist peds, the influence of SWC was region specific. Of most importance were higher color chromas documented from field moist peds compared to oven dried peds in the Coastal region. In this region, gley chromas were determined in unsaturated soils emphasizing the importance of carefully evaluating other landscape features when interpreting the soil for onsite wastewater treatment. While SWC affected the agreement between digital measurements and visual observations, in most regions the difference was less than one color chip and of no practical significance. Varying photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) did not affect digital measurements and had minimal influence on visual observations. Digital measurements of soil color value and chroma may offer validation of soil color under varying lighting conditions and could be a promising tool for training new soil evaluators in color assessment.

Soil degradation is considered one of the most important factors limiting agricultural development in Libya, however little effort has been taken to identify the distribution of soil degradation occurrence and type for the country. While the soil degradation for the primary agriculture regions (PAR) has been previously determined as thirty-three percent (33%), the degradation for the rest of the country was still unknown. For this reason, polygons representing soil and climate characteristics, landscape feature and soil degradation from the PAR were converted to raster using ArcGIS (at a resolution of 1000 m 2 ) resulting in 850 points which were then exported as a table for modelling purposes. The data set was subjected to logistic regression to model the binomial outcome of soil degradation occurrence (occurrence, no occurrence). A multinomial logistic regression was used to relate predictor variables to the type of soil degradation since there was more than two outcome options (salinization, water erosion, and wind erosion). Finally, the prediction models were used to determine the remainder of the country’s degradation occurrence and type. Results indicated that slope, texture and wind speed are the most important variables for soil degradation occurrence and type in PAR. When these models are applied to the reminder of the country, they show that salinization was the primary type of soil degradation (30 %), with water erosion and wind erosion causing 10 % and 15 % of soil degradation, respectively. The intention is for these models to assist stakeholders in identifying areas where agriculture is most likely to be successful, while also applicable to countries with similar climate and soils in North Africa. Keywords: Agriculture, GIS, Libya, Logistic regression, Soil degradation.

We developed the Stormwater Runoff Modeling System (SWARM) based on curve number and unit hydrograph methods of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. SWARM models single events, targets watersheds fitting easily within hydrologic units with 12-digit codes, and has been calibrated for low-gradient topography of the Southeast coastal plain. We established protocols; made changes related to peak rate factors, travel time formulas, curve numbers, and the initial abstraction ratio; and then tested the output with multi-site validation using U.S. Geological Survey measurements of discharge and rainfall. Validation results from both undeveloped and developed watersheds support the robustness of our system in quantifying and simulating runoff: rainfall to runoff differences between measured and simulated volumes ranged from 3 to 11%; r(2) for hydrograph curves ranged from 0.82 to 0.98. SWARM can be a useful tool for scientific research and for coastal resource management and decision making in the Southeast coastal plain specifically and also may be applied to other areas by recalibrating parameters and modifying calculation templates. Copyright (c) 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Toxic cyanobacteria blooms are a growing concern for public health and safety, due in part to the production of the hepatotoxin microcystin by certain species, including Microcystis aeruginosa. Management strategies for controlling cyanobacteria blooms include algaecide treatments, often with copper sulfate, and more recently oxidizers such as sodium percarbonate that produce hydrogen peroxide. This study assessed the effects of two copper-containing algaecides and one sodium percarbonate-containing algaecide on mitigating cell numbers and toxin content of cultured M. aeruginosa and summer (July) bloom samples of Anabaenopsis sp. in a brackish stormwater detention pond. Monitoring of the bloom revealed that Anabaenopsis sp. was associated with elevated levels of orthophosphate compared to nitrogen (dissolved inorganic nitrogen to phosphorus ratios were 0.19-1.80), and the bloom decline (September-October) was likely due to lower autumn water temperatures combined with potential grazing by the dinoflagellate Protoperidinium quinquecorne. Laboratory-based algaecide experiments included three dose levels, and cyanobacteria cell numbers and microcystin concentrations (particulate and dissolved) were evaluated over 7 d. Following exposure, copper-containing treatments generally had lower cell numbers than either sodium percarbonate-containing or control (no algaecide) treatments. Addition of algaecides did not reduce overall microcystin levels, and a release of toxin from the particulate to dissolved phase was observed in most treatments. These findings indicate that algaecide applications may visibly control cyanobacteria bloom densities, but not necessarily toxin concentrations, and have implications for public health and safety.

Upland areas of southeastern United States tidal creek watersheds are popular locations for development, and they form part of the estuarine ecosystem characterized by high economic and ecological value. The primary objective of this work was to define the relationships between coastal development, with its concomitant land use changes and associated increases in nonpoint source pollution loading, and the ecological condition of tidal creek ecosystems including related consequences to human populations and coastal communities. Nineteen tidal creek systems, located along the southeastern US coast from southern North Carolina to southern Georgia, were sampled in the summer, 2005 and 2006. Within each system, creeks were divided into two primary segments based upon tidal zoning—intertidal (i.e., shallow, narrow headwater sections) and subtidal (i.e., deeper and wider sections)—and then watersheds were delineated for each segment. Relationships between coastal development, concomitant land use changes, nonpoint source pollution loading, the ecological condition of tidal creek ecosystems, and the potential impacts to human populations and coastal communities were evaluated. In particular, relationships were identified between the amount of impervious cover (indicator of coastal development) and a range of exposure and response measures including increased chemical contamination of the sediments, increased pathogens in the water, increased nitrate/nitrite levels, increased salinity range, decreased biological productivity of the macrobenthos, alterations to the food web, increased flooding potential, and increased human risk of exposure to pathogens and harmful chemicals. The integrity of tidal creeks, particularly the headwaters or intertidally dominated sections, was impaired by increases in nonpoint source pollution associated with sprawling urbanization (i.e., increases in impervious cover). This finding suggests that these habitats are valuable early warning sentinels of ensuing ecological impacts and potential public health and flooding risk from sprawling coastal development. The results also validate the use of a conceptual model with impervious cover thresholds for tidal creek systems in the southeast region.

We developed a stormwater runoff modeling system that quantifies stormwater runoff in watersheds of the southeast coastal plain and is based on curve number and unit hydrograph methods of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Services. We established a protocol for estimating runoff, calibrated the output, and then tested our system with U.S. Geologic Survey measured discharge and rainfall. Multi-site validation test results support the appropriateness of our calibration and the corollary that our stormwater runoff simulations are reasonable for our target watersheds. The modeling system is robust and flexible, and parameters can be changed in order to explore diverse aspects of stormwater runoff including comparing runoff among watersheds at different stages of urbanization; projecting changes in a watersheds runoff with increased development; and looking at runoff volume within the context of impervious cover, changing patterns of precipitation, and antecedent runoff conditions by using a broad range of climate change and land use scenarios. Our modeling system provides a powerful tool for scientific research and for coastal resource management and decision making in the southeast specifically, and it can be applied to other regions by recalibrating parameters that reflect regional characteristics. The system also can serve as a community science education tool for the general public with an interest in understanding changes in runoff in the context of urbanization and climate change.

Potential impacts from changing coastal landscapes, specifically the conversion of forested and agricultural lands to residential and commercial development, can be reduced by more informed decisionmaking related to green infrastructure if the appropriate tools are available. An assessment of existing natural resources and their benefits in terms of ecosystem services can allow for better guidance for their protection and preservation. In contrast, some highly impervious urban landscapes could benefit from restoration strategies based on green infrastructure principles as sustainable solutions that mimic natural hydrology and ecology. The effectiveness of sustainable land use strategies, whether in developed or developing areas, becomes an exercise in optimization at varying spatial and temporal scales: whether at the watershed level; within geopolitical boundaries; in developed neighborhoods, rural communities or preserved tracts of land, or within an individual practice or series of practices (i.e. treatment train). This work introduces tools for the assessment and feasibility of green infrastructure strategies between different scales as related to sustainable land use decisionmaking in coastal South Carolina from individual best management practices (BMPs) to the whole watershed. Specific hydrological and ecological parameters can be associated with each spatial and temporal scale. The question is: can these parameters be summed, compounded, and/or prioritized, and if so, what are the implications, if any, to coastal land use decision-making based on green infrastructure principles? INTRODUCTION Green infrastructure has been defined as “an interconnected network of natural areas and other open spaces that conserves natural ecosystem values and functions, sustains clean air and water, and provides a wide array of benefits to people and wildlife”. (Benedict and McMahon, 2006). Recent focus on green infrastructure by the U.S. EPA as a measure of “managing wet weather” includes a subset of technologies known as Low Impact Development (LID). EPA-recommended site-scale practices include rainwater harvesting, downspout disconnection, rain gardens, permeable pavements, vegetated swales, green roofs, and brownfield and infill redevelopment. Neighborhoodscale approaches include “green” parking, streets, and highways; pocket wetlands, and urban forestry strategies. Watershed scale strategies include riparian buffers (U.S. EPA, 2010a). Many of these strategies are further explored in a sustainable design and green building toolkit for local governments (U.S. EPA, 2010b). From a stormwater regulatory standpoint, anticipated changes to the NPDES permit requirements both nationwide and within South Carolina are moving toward volumeand infiltration-based strategies in contrast to the current requirements where post-development peak flows must at least equal those of pre-development. As these mandates move forward, local and regional decision-makers and land use practitioners need science-based tools to inform the design process. From a larger conceptual view of green infrastructure, we can summarize landscape design goals as follows:  Retain the natural landscape and hydrology  Promote open space, corridor, and habitat preservation  Encourage riparian and floodplain protection  Reduce and disconnect impervious surfaces  Provide on-site stormwater management and water re-use Potential shortand long-term impacts from coastal land use change can be reduced by informed decision-making at various scales, especially if targets for sustainable solutions are well-defined. Whether the effort is one of preservation or of restoration (or both within a given land area), the system components of hydrology, soils, and Figure 1. A conceptual model for a multi-scale system of landscape parameters, their interactive complex processes, and related ecosystem services. (Modified from Ge Sun, Southern Global Climate Program, USDA Forest Service) vegetation and their various elements must be incorporated into the strategy. A conceptual model of processes and their relationships within the coastal landscape fabric in terms of the system components and elements is given in Figure 1. Goals for sustainability, along with associated relevant criteria and metrics for achieving an optimal set of land use decisions, must be clearly defined at any scale. Ecosystem services defined in the figure may serve as goals for optimizing sustainable land use strategies. The conceptual model can be applied at various spatial and temporal scales, while some elements and processes may take priority depending on the given scale within which decisions are to be made, along with any initial and/or critical conditions, allowing for hierarchy and subsequent goal definition at that scale. Can what we learn from the local level be applied to the watershed scale, and vice versa? And if so, can we identify sustainable land use practices and natural resource preservation strategies given available landscape information? Further, can we develop science-based tools to inform the decisionmaking process related to green infrastructure? Toward this aim, we will consider both the landscape design goals listed above and the conceptual model for landscape parameters in our assessment tool development. METHODS Integrated research and extension programs designed to provide science-based information related to South Carolina’s natural resources, while representing various spatial scales, are being conducted and delivered, including: (a) evaluating individual LID practices for water budgets and pollutant removal; (b) monitoring hydrological and ecological parameters in forested watersheds prior to residential and commercial development; (c) evaluating green infrastructure design and practices in urbanizing and urbanized watersheds; (d) refining remote data acquisition tools in association with Clemson’s Intelligent River© project, and (e) developing web-based mapping tools for natural resource-based land use decision-making. As an example, we focus on the Waccamaw Neck in eastern Georgetown County, SC, where integrated programs include the online Community Resource Inventory (CRI), the Bannockburn Plantation site (originally part of the Figure 2. Map outputs from the Online Community Resource Inventory (CRI) for Georgetown County, SC, focusing on the Waccamaw Neck. Property ownership (parcels and protected lands) overlays a street map for natural resource planning and zoning (left) and soil drainage classes overlays a USGS topo map for stormwater management plan reviews and decision-making (right). Intelligent River© monitoring project), and a rain garden monitoring and demonstration project. Online Community Resource Inventory (CRI). An interactive web-based mapping tool has been developed for Georgetown County, SC. Available geographic data include parcels, protected lands, roads, soils, land use/land cover, habitat, flood zones, and water resources, and these can be displayed over topographic maps, satellite imagery, or a street map. Selected data overlays can depict specific resources relevant for a land use decision, such as those related to property ownership and the connection of open or green spaces, or to the recommendation and prioritization of stormwater management strategies based on soils and topography (Figure 2), among other information. A user can configure the map for specific views, while preconfigured maps are being developed to assist new users. Near real-time data as RSS feeds, including stream gage data from USGS, have been incorporated into the tool. This information can be incorporated in the conceptual model (Fig. 1) for hydrology (e.g. streamflow, flood zones), soils (e.g. drainage class), and vegetation (e.g. land cover, habitat type) with a goal of quantifying these relationships and linking them to specific ecosystem services (e.g. storm protection, habitat/corridors). Visit www.cri-sc.org for more information. Bannockburn Plantation. Headwater streams in undeveloped coastal forests with shallow water tables function as natural storage and conveyance mechanisms for surface flows and groundwater discharge. Groundwater position often controls stream flow and evapotranspiration plays the most significant role in surface and subsurface flows seasonally. Toward the determination of baseline ecohydrologic parameters for an undeveloped coastal tract of land, a monitoring project has been conducted at Bannockburn Plantation, where Figure 3. Monitoring stations for Upper Debidue Creek on the Bannockburn Plantation property and in DeBordieu Colony located upstream from North Inlet. The area in typified by low gradient topography and a shallow water table. Runoff: rainfall ratios and factors related to stream flow generation (rainfall, evapotranspiration, and water table position) are being investigated on Bannockburn Plantation as a benchmark for pre-development hydrology for coastal forested headwater streams. future development has been proposed (Hitchcock et al., 2008). One of the original sites for the larger statewide Intelligent River© project, the primary monitoring strategy for the land tract has included parameters for: (1) meteorological data; (2) surface hydrology and water quality; (3) groundwater hydrology; and (4) vegetative ecology. Two years of monitoring data from the Upper Debidue Creek watershed (approx. 400 acres) have been collected. This information can be incorporated in the conceptual model (Fig. 1) for hydrology (e.g. streamflow and water quality), soils (e.g. water table position), and vegetation (e.g. water/nutrient uptake, organic contribution) with a goal of quantifying these relationships and linking them to specific ecosystem services (e.g. flood control, water quality, habitat, nutrient cycling, carbon storage). Visit www.intelligentriver.org for more information. Rain Garden Monitoring. At the site design scale, bioretention (rai

Water resources are under unprecedented strain. The combined effects of population growth, climate change, and rural industrialization have led to greater demand for an increasingly scarce resource. Ensuring that communities have adequate access to water—an essential requirement for community health and prosperity—requires finegrained management policies based on real-time in situ data, both environmental and hydrological. To address this requirement at the state level, we have developed the South Carolina Digital Watershed, an end-to-end system for monitoring water resources. In this paper, we describe the design and implementation of the core system components: (i) in situ sensing hardware, (ii) collection and uplink facilities, (iii) data streaming middleware, and (iv) back-end repository and presentation services. We conclude by discussing key organizational and technical challenges encountered during the development process.

The effects of stochastic events on estuarine water quality parameters are often difficult to quantify spatially due to R S the inherent variability in these systems. The use of geographic information systems to identify spatial patterns and trends can improve such efforts. This work describes the use of geographic information systems and the Mantel Test to determine the existence of trends and the persistence of spatial patterns in the relationships between nutrients and chlorophyll a in an urbanized lagoonal estuarine system, Murrells Inlet, South Carolina. Relatively dry and wet periods were compared, the latter following several substantial precipitation events related to tropical hurricane activity in the summer of 1999. Dissolved inorganic nitrogen concentrations were elevated following the passage of Hurricane Irene, and chlorophyll a did not increase concomitantly. Orthophosphate was found to have persistently higher concentrations in the more urbanized regions of Murrells Inlet that were consistent spatially during the two sampling periods. Strong spatial and temporal correlations between chlorophyll a and dissolved silicate: dissolved inorganic nitrogen suggest a relationship between the latter ratio and the phytoplankton growth. However, there appeared to be only a tenuous relationship between chlorophyll a and dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, both spatially and temporally, suggesting that nutrient requirements for phytoplankton growth were met by internal estuarine processes, during this time period.

CHEMTAX is a matrix factorization program used to derive taxonomic structure of phytoplankton from photosynthetic pigment ratios. The program was originally developed from and applied to the analysis of oceanic phytoplankton assemblages. We found that application of the original CHEMTAX reference matrix to southeastern United States estuarine systems produced inaccurate results, as verified by microscopy. Modification of the matrix, based primarily on the pigment ratios of 33 estuarine isolates, improved the predictive capabilities of CHEMTAX for our samples. Limitations of the method included an overestimation of diatom biomass (due to the inability to differentiate diatoms from taxa with chloroplasts derived from diatom endosymbionts, notably some dinoflagellates) and a tendency to exclude some raphidophyte species. In complement with microscopic verification, the method was shown to improve assessment of phytoplankton taxonomic composition.

Tidal flow causes high temporal variability in environmental properties that impact ecosystem dynamics. Microbes such as phytoplankton are especially susceptible to tidal advection and mixing, and understanding their role in estuarine food webs and biogeochemical cycles requires information on their biomass and taxonomic composition over short time scales (e.g. tidal cycles). We conducted a survey of phytoplankton pigment biomass and taxonomic composition over complete tidal cycles in 2 salt marsh creeks on 5 sampling occasions from July to September 2000, and assessed environmental factors regulating phytoplankton properties. Tidal input of low chl a water combined with phytoplankton losses (microzooplankton grazing, oyster grazing, settling) caused large decreases in phytoplankton biomass (by 47 to 51% on average) on the flood tide, and also influenced the taxonomic composition. Depending on sampling date, pennate diatoms or flagellates were pri- marily reduced on the flood tide. One sampling date followed a heavy rain event, and was marked by substantial increases in tidal creek nutrient concentrations and reduced microzooplankton grazing rates, emphasizing the need to consider the combined influences of nutrients and grazing in explain- ing bloom formation following rain events. The high tidal variability in phytoplankton properties sug- gests that strict attention to tidal phase is needed in determining long-term trends or inter-estuary comparisons in phytoplankton biomass, and primary production in tidally-driven estuaries.

Salt marsh estuaries emit high levels of dimethylsulfide (DMS), yet little is known about the contribution of tidal creeks, which are rich in phytoplankton that can potentially produce dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP). Quantitative data is presented on the relationship between phytoplankton assemblage structure during tidal cycles in North Inlet, a high-salinity salt marsh estuary near Georgetown, South Carolina. While there was little or no correlation between chlorophyll a (ch1 a) and phytoplankton DMSP (DMSPp) in tidal-creek waters, the DMSPp:ch1 a ratio showed a strong correlation with tidal stage, being highest at high slack tide and lowest at low slack tide, Phytoplankton assemblage structure determined from HPLC pigment profiles and CHEMTAX analysis (a matrix factorization program to derive taxonomic composition from photopigment ratios) showed that DMSP-rich taxa were highly correlated with the high DMSP:ch1 a values which occurred at high tide, These were haptophytes, dinoflagellates, cyanobacteria and cryptophytes. Diatoms had a lower correlation coefficient but, because they represented almost 40% of the algal biomass during the tidal cycle, this group could be a significant contributor of DMSPp at high tide. Chlorophytes, prasinophytes, and some chrysophytes showed a strong negative correlation coefficient (r) with the DMSPp:ch1 a peak. We conclude that the increase in the DMSPp:ch1 a ratio at high tide is due to an increased contribution of DMSP-rich phytoplankton taxa that enter the creeks from coastal waters during flood tide, and low values resulted from low DMSP-containing resuspended benthic microalgae, advected from the adjacent salt marsh into the tidal creeks during ebb tide. The data indicate a strong tidal effect on DMSP concentration that is a function of change in phytoplankton assemblage structure.

CHEMTAX is a matrix factorization program used to derive taxonomic structure of phytoplankton from photosynthetic pigment vitios. The program was originally developed from and applied to the analysis of oceanic phytoplankton assemblages. We found that application of the original CHEMTAX reference matrix to southeastern United States estuarine systems produced inaccurate results, as verified by microscopy. Modification of the matrix, based primarily on the pigment ratios of 33 estuarine isolates, improved the predictive capabilities of CHEMTAX for our samples. Limitations of the method included an overstimation of diatom biomass (due to the inability to differentiate diatoms from taxa with chloroplasts derived from diatom endosymbionts, notably some dinoflagellates) and a tendency to exclude some raphidophyte species. In complement with microscopic verification, the method was shown to improve assessment of phytoplankton taxonomic composition.

As the cost of quality waste paper continues to escalate in response to an increased global demand for this finite resource, loss of saleable fiber within flotation rejects becomes both environmentally and economically unacceptable. The ability of surfactant spray technology to reduce fiber loss without detriment to pulp brightness gains has been demonstrated during both laboratory- and pilot-scale flotation deinking investigations. This paper documents the successful transfer of this technology to a single flotation unit within the deinking line of a mill producing newsprint from 100% secondary fiber. Initial results suggest that the loss of fiber across the unit was reduced by more than 50% without obvious detriment to final pulp quality. Application: Paper mills could significantly reduce fiber loss and save costs using surfactant spray technology in flotation deinking.

In this study we have developed techniques to compare local changes in signal intensity over time in fat suppressed 3D gradient echo MR images of articular cartilage in patients with osteoarthritis. We have applied these techniques to data taken over a periods of 1 and 3 years in two groups of patients with established OA of the knee. In both these studies, no significant change in total cartilage volume could be detected but we were able to observe some significant changes in signal intensity. We conclude that in a study of cartilage structure this technique can provide additional information without the overhead of extra scans.

The robust growth of coastal communities in the southeastern United States is putting unique pressures on estuarine resources. Urbanization of estuarine systems may alter ecosystem function and thus affect the spatial scale and magnitude of nutrient concentrations and primary production temporally and spatially. We examined the spatial and temporal patterns of nutrient and chlorophyll a (Chl a) concentrations in two shallow well-mixed estuaries, (1) a developed estuary, Murrells Inlet (MI), South Carolina, and (2) a relatively pristine estuary, North Inlet (NI), South Carolina. The summer chlorophyll a maximum in MI was characteristically higher than in NI, which may be indicative of eutrophication. Correlations between salinity and inorganic nutrients (N and P) suggest that nutrient import from upland sources may be more pronounced in MI during stochastic precipitation events. Although inorganic nutrient concentrations between the estuaries were similar overall, during a wet period, inorganic N concentration in MI was increased to a greater extent than in NI, while only minimal increases in inorganic P were observed in both estuaries. Chlorophyll a concentrations decreased from the dry to wet period. Geographic Information System (GIS) plots of intensive spatial sampling in MI indicated spatial gradients of nutrient concentrations within this estuary that appeared to be consistent over time. These observations were investigated in more detail using regression analyses to examine the influences of coastal dilution and nutrient sources on relationships between water quality constituents. Results indicate the importance of stochastic rain events in affecting the linkages of estuarine processes to upland runoff in the urbanized estuary, MI.