A globally applicable code of conduct specifically dedicated to biosecurity has been developed together with guidance for its procedural implementation. This is to address the regulations governing potential dual-use of biological materials, associated information and technologies, and reduce the potential for their malicious use. Scientists researching and exchanging micro-organisms have a responsibility to prevent misuse of the inherently dangerous ones, that is, those possessing characters such as pathogenicity or toxin production. The code of conduct presented here is based on best practice principles for scientists and their institutions working with biological resources with a specific focus on micro-organisms. It aims to raise awareness of regulatory needs and to protect researchers, their facilities and stakeholders. It reflects global activities in this area in response to legislation such as that in the USA, the PATRIOT Act of 2001, Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001; the Anti-Terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001 and subsequent amendments in the UK; the EU Dual-Use Regulation; and the recommendations of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), under their Biological Resource Centre (BRC) Initiative at the beginning of the millennium (OECD, 2001). Two project consortia with international partners came together with experts in the field to draw up a Code of Conduct on Biosecurity for BRCs to ensure that culture collections and microbiologists in general worked in a way that met the requirements of such legislation. A BRC is the modern day culture collection that adds value to its holdings and implements common best practice in the collection and supply of strains for research and development. This code of conduct specifically addresses the work of public service culture collections and describes the issues of importance and the controls or practices that should be in place. However, these best practices are equally applicable to all other microbiology laboratories holding, using and sharing microbial resources. The code was introduced to the Seventh Review Conference to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), United Nations, Geneva, 2011; the delegates to the States' parties recommended that this code of conduct be broadly applied in the life sciences and disseminated amongst microbiologists, hence the publishing of it here along with practical implementation guidance. This paper considers the regulatory and working environment for microbiology, defines responsibilities and provides practical advice on the implementation of best practice in handling the organism itself, associated data and technical know-how.

Bacillus and related genera are characterised by the ability to form vegetative cells and spores. Endospore-forming catalase-positive bacteria have been traditionally allocated to the genus Bacillus. These organisms are widespread within environmental niches and habitats. Their spores are resistant to heat and other means of sterilization, so spore-forming bacteria are a major concern to food microbiologists. Virtually any food can be colonized by these organisms due to their ubiquitous distribution, their physiological diversity and thus in their growth requirements. With respect to diagnostics, it is therefore not possible to design a single medium which allows growth of all or most species within this group. Numerous media have been described for the cultivation of individual species; however, most of these are not selective and only some of them are elective. Bacillus strains do not form endospores under all cultural conditions. Sporulation is inducible; e. g. by limitation of nutrient factors, including carbon or nitrogen. Further, most Bacillus strains form endospores in media supplemented with manganese salts. The only selective media for aerobic spore-forming bacteria in the mesophilic/neutrophilic range have been those developed for the so-called Bacillus cereus group. This group consists of genetically closely related species, B. anthracis, B. cereus, B. thuringiensis, B. weihenstephanensis, B. mycoides and B. pseudomycoides. Despite the variations in potential virulence, the differentiation of the B. cereus group members remains a difficult important task. The most widely used plating media for detection of B. cereus are mannitol egg-yolk polymyxin agar (MEYP or MYP) and polymyxin egg-yolk mannitol bromothymol blue agar (PEMBA). Procedures for reliable enumeration and identification of Bacillus cereus are included in international standards, e.g. EN ISO 7932:2004 and EN ISO 21871:2006. Recently, two new chromogenic media have been developed for the Bacillus cereus group, supplemented with 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indoxyl myo-inositol-1-phosphate. Other simple methods of selection are to adjust media to certain pH values or to incubate at certain temperatures. This physiological approach has been successful e. g. with Alicyclobacillus spp., emerging food spoilage organisms in the fruit juice and fruit juice products industry.In general it should be noted that aerobic spore-forming organisms are no longer just the traditional genus Bacillus, but fall into an increasing number of additional genera. Recent reports have described toxin-producing B. subtilis group members and the analysis of plasmids, which are very common in the B. cereus group, became a focal point of interest. As it cannot be assumed that novel species are of no relevance to food, it is sometimes advisable to perform a more thorough taxonomic identification to complement the diagnostic approach. Genomic studies and the development of more and better diagnostic media would probably aid the detection of aerobic spore forming bacteria in foods.

Being charged with the task of accessioning and supplying of living microbiological material, microbial culture collections are institutions that play a central role between the interests of a variety of user communities. On the one side are the providers of living microbiological material, such as individual scientists, institutions and countries of origin and on the other side are the various kinds of recipients/users of cultures of microorganisms from academia and industry. Thus, providing access to high quality biological material and scientific services while at the same time observing donor countries' rights, intellectual property rights, biosafety and biosecurity aspects poses demanding challenges. E.g. donor countries rights relate to Article 15 of the Convention on Biological Diversity: "Contracting parties …. recognize the sovereign rights of states over their natural resources …. shall facilitate access to resources … and not impose restrictions that run counter to the aims of the Convention. Access to natural resources shall be by mutually agreed terms and subject to prior informed consent ..." The use of a proposed standard contract by culture collections is discussed as a way of contractually safeguarding the existing research commons, while observing the new rights established in the Convention on Biological Diversity as well as other existing and new legislation impacting on the accessibility of living microbial material.

A Gram-positive, moderately halophilic, alkalitolerant, strictly aerobic, oxidase- and catalase-positive, rod-shaped bacterium, strain YIM kkny3T, was isolated from a sediment sample collected from a salt lake in the Qaidam Basin of north-west China. Cells were motile by means of peritrichous flagella and formed ellipsoidal endospores lying in subterminal swollen sporangia. Growth occurred with 1-20% (w/v) total salts (optimum, 5-10%) and at pH 6.0-10.5 (optimum, pH 7.5-8.0) and 10-55 degrees C (optimum, 35-40 degrees C). It was unable to grow with NaCl as the only salt. meso-Diaminopimelic acid was present in the cell-wall peptidoglycan. The strain contained menaquinone 7 (MK-7) as the predominant respiratory quinone and diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine and an unidentified phospholipid as polar lipids. The major cellular fatty acids were anteiso-C15:0 and anteiso-C17:0. The DNA G+C content was 40.9 mol%. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that strain YIM kkny3T belonged to the genus Virgibacillus, and was most closely related to the type strains of Virgibacillus olivae (97.1% similarity), Virgibacillus marismortui (97.0%) and Virgibacillus kekensis (96.8%). Levels of DNA-DNA relatedness between strain YIM kkny3T and the type strains of V. olivae, V. marismortui and V. kekensis were 12.4, 10.6 and 15.7%, respectively. The combination of phylogenetic analysis, genotypic data, phenotypic characteristics and chemotaxonomic differences indicated that strain YIM kkny3T represents a novel species of the genus Virgibacillus, for which the name Virgibacillus sediminis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is YIM kkny3T (=CCTCC AA 207023T=DSM 19797T=KCTC 13193T).

Two Gram-positive, aerobic, spore-forming rods, F73T and I80T, were isolated from upland soil. A phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences placed both isolates within the genus Sporosarcina, and showed a sequence similarity of 98.9 % between the two strains and a similarity of approximately 94.6–97.3 % with respect to Sporosarcina species with validly published names. The values for DNA–DNA relatedness between the two isolates and related type strains of the genus Sporosarcina were below 28.0 %. For both strains, the major cellular fatty acids were anteiso-C15 : 0 and iso-C15 : 0. In both cases, the cell-wall peptidoglycan was of the A4α type (l-Lys–d-Glu) and the major menaquinone was MK-7. Diaminopimelic acid was absent from both strains. The genomic DNA G+C contents of strains F73T and I80T were 46.5 and 44.5 mol%, respectively. On the basis of the phylogenetic analysis and physiological and chemotaxonomic data, the isolates represent two novel species of the genus Sporosarcina, for which the names Sporosarcina koreensis sp. nov. (type strain F73T =KACC 11299T =DSM 16921T) and Sporosarcina soli sp. nov. (type strain I80T =KACC 11300T =DSM 16920T) are proposed.

Worldwide development of biotechnology results increasingly in the recognition of the importance of microbial culture collections and their holdings. In particular, it is recognised that the knowledge on these holdings accumulated in culture collections should be put more easily at the use of researchers. Far sighted scientists, under the leadership of the late VBD Skerman, had set up, already from the mid 1960s on, activities to catalogue culture collections and their holdings.

The taxonomic position of two spore-forming strains 6T19(T) and 6T29, isolated from cotton composts for the cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus), was investigated by a polyphasic approach. Cells of strains 6T19(T) and 6T29 were rod-shaped, Gram-negative and strictly aerobic. Sequencing and comparative analyses for the 16S rRNA genes of these strains clearly showed their phylogenetic affiliation to the genus Ureibacillus. Their closest relatives Ureibacillus thermosphaericus and Ureibacillus terrenus have sequence similarity of 96.9 and 97.5 %, respectively. The isoprenoid quinones of isolate 6T19(T) were MK-9, MK-8, MK-7, MK-10 and MK-6 (45: 27:18: 5:4%), the peptidoglycan type was L-Lys <- D-Asp and the main cellular fatty acid was i-C-16:0. DNA-DNA hybridization experiments resulted in relatedness values of 37 between 6T19(T) and U. thermosphaericus DSM 10633(T) and 41 % between 6T19(T) and U. terrenus DSM 12654(T). Based on the polyphasic data, strains 6T19(T) and 6T29 can be described as members of a novel species of the genus Ureibacillus, for which the name Ureibacillus suwonenesis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is 6T19(T) (=KACC 11287(T)=DSM 16752(T)).

Planetary protection measures are necessary for all space flight missions involved with life detection and/or sample return procedures to avoid the contamination of critical spacecraft hardware components with terrestrial organisms. Spacecraft are assembled in clean rooms under defined and controlled environmental conditions. These conditions might be considered as ‘extreme’ with respect to controlled air circulation, low relative humidity, moderately high constant temperature, and low nutrient conditions and represent a special ‘artificial’ environment for microorganisms.

In the near future, an increasing number of in situ life detection and sample return missions to planets and other solar system bodies will be launched. The demand to control spacecraft-carried microbial contamination becomes obvious. COSPAR (Committee of Space Research) has defined guidelines and bioburden limits for different types of missions and target bodies. The first step in the implementation of these planetary protection guidelines encompasses a qualitative and quantitative inventory of the bioburden of spacecraft assembly facilities. With information about the composition of these microbial communities the development and/or optimization of adequate cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization procedures for spacecraft preparation before launch will be possible.In the ESA project MiDiv, we started to investigate the diversity of cultivable microorganisms found on spacecraft and spacecraft assembly halls using the satellites SMART-1 and ROSETTA as test objects. The analyses to date include cultivation of microorganisms by varying pH, temperature, oxygen, and pasteurization. A culture collection of bacterial isolates and a database of 16S RNA gene sequences have been established. The results of our preliminary work, including the numbers of colony forming units, differentiated as aerobes and facultative anaerobes as well as their phylogenetic classification, give a first overview of the breadth of physiological potential of the identified microorganisms and their capability to withstand various cleaning and sterilizing procedures currently used for the planetary protection. (c) 2006 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A Gram-positive, endospore-forming, xylanase-producing bacterium isolated from a rice field was studied taxonomically. The strain grows at 10-40 degrees C and in the presence of lysozyme or 5 % (w/v) NaCl. Chemotaxonomic analysis revealed that MK-7 was the predominant menaquinone of the isolated strain, while the major fatty acid was anteiso-C(15 : 0). Comparison of 16S rRNA gene sequences showed that strain BP-23(T) fell within the radiation of the cluster comprising Paenibacillus species. The highest 16S rRNA gene sequence similarities were found with Paenibacillus illinoisensis (97.4 %), Paenibacillus pabuli (97.1 %) and Paenibacillus amylolyticus (96.9 %). The DNA-DNA relatedness of strain BP-23(T) with respect to these three species was very low (32.7, 31.6 and 23.0 %, respectively). On the basis of phenotypic and genotypic data, strain BP-23(T) should be placed in the genus Paenibacillus and designated a novel species, for which the name Paenibacillus barcinonensis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is BP-23(T) (=CECT 7022(T)=DSM 15478(T)).

The term ‘biological resources’ is applied to the living biological material collected, held and catalogued in culture collections: bacterial and fungal cultures; animal, human and plant cells; viruses; and isolated genetic material. A wealth of information on these materials has been accumulated in culture collections, and most of this information is accessible. Digitalisation of data has reached a high level; however, information is still dispersed. Individual and coordinated approaches have been initiated to improve accessibility of biological resource centres, their holdings and related information through the Internet. These approaches cover subjects such as standardisation of data handling and data accessibility, and standardisation and quality control of laboratory procedures. This article reviews some of the most important initiatives implemented so far, as well as the most recent achievements. It also discusses the possible improvements that could be achieved by adopting new communication standards and technologies, such as web services, in view of a deeper and more fruitful integration of biological resources information in the bioinformatics network environment.

Twenty-two agarolytic, aerobic, spore-forming strains were characterized taxonomically by DNA-DNA reassociation experiments, riboprint analyses, 16S rDNA sequencing and phenetic similarity analyses. Based on riboprint analyses, the strains formed eight ribogroups, six of which contained 2-6 strains and two encompassed single strains. Within the multi-strain ribogroups, similarities ranged from 91-99%. Phylogenetic analyses of representatives of the eight groups by 16S rDNA sequence analysis showed that the strains were affiliated to the genus Paenibacillus, but relatedness to described Paenibacillus species was only moderate (<97.8% sequence similarity). Published DNA-DNA similarity values for most of the agarolytic strains, supplemented with new data, supported the distinctiveness of the eight ribogroups. Intragroup DNA-DNA similarity values ranged from 80 to 104%, while intergroup DNA-DNA similarities were <35%. Based on genomic distinctiveness and supported by the presence of distinguishing phenotypic properties, multi-strain groups 1 and 2 are proposed as novel species, Paenibacillus agarexedens sp. nov., nom. rev. (type strain, DSM 1327(T) = CIP 107437(T)) and Paenibacillus agaridevorans sp. nov. (type strain, DSM 1355(T) = CIP 107436(T)).

Spores are resistant to heat and other means of sterilization, so sporeforming bacteria are of major concern to food microbiologists. Virtually any food can be colonized by these organisms due to their ubiquitous distribution, their diversity in physiological properties and thus in growth requirements. With respect to diagnostics, it is therefore not possible to design a single medium which allows growth of all or most species of this group. Numerous media have been described for the cultivation of individual species of aerobic spore forming organisms, however, most of these are not selective and only some are elective. The only largely selective media in the area of aerobic spore forming bacteria acting in the mesophilic/neutrophilic range have been developed for Bacillus cereus and related species. The most widely used among those are MEYP (Mannitol Egg Yolk Polymyxin agar) and PEMBA (Polymyxin Egg yolk Mannitol Bromothymol blue Agar)). Another suitable form of selectivity that is easily achieved, is to adjust media (even standard media) to certain pH values or to incubate at certain temperatures. This physiological approach has been successful e.g with Alicyclobacillus. In most cases, however, even under those conditions, groups of species rather than individual species can be expected. For up-to-date results in food microbiology, it should be understood that the aerobic spore forming organisms are no longer just the traditional genus Bacillus but fall into a number of genera. In addition, several of the traditionally well known species such as B. subtilis, B. circulans or B. sterarothermophilus have been divided up into newly established species to form more consistent taxa. As it cannot be assumed that the newly described species are of no relevance to food, it is advisable to perform under certain circumstances a more thorough taxonomic identification to complete the diagnostic approach. Further research into the development of more and better diagnostic media would be worthwhile to ease the detection of members of the large group of aerobic spore forming bacteria in foods. This review aims to describe the physiological peculiarities and relationships within the group in order to support and encourage the development of additional selective or elective media for other aerobic spore forming organisms of relevance to food.