Although progress against malaria has slowed during the past 3 years, tremendous progress was made between 2000 and 2015 using mosquito, or vector, control to slow transmission of the parasite. The fragile market for vector control products and the need to prove their efficacy against disease have raised significant barriers for development and use of innovative solutions. Positive developments are the recent changes in the World Health Organization's approval processes, inventiveness by industry and academia, and public health's realization that data-driven, integrated vector control is a necessity if malaria eradication is to become a reality. Agriculturally based industries have much to offer by lending their expertise to this problem that has many of the same technical challenges as crop protection. Creative partnerships will be necessary to achieve malaria eradication by 2040, and the benefits will be transformational for both agriculture and public health.

Invasive species can be a threat to health and biodiversity. There are relatively few invasive mosquito species in Texas, including Aedes aegypti, Ae. albopictus, and Culex quinquefasciatus. The wide variety of habitats and climatic conditions in Texas create opportunities for invasive species, especially as climate and human change create more disturbed habitats. Potentially important species that might be poised to move north from Mexico include Anopheles vestitipennis, Ae. serratus, and, An. albimanus. Globally, An. stephensi, An. arabiensis, and Ae. notoscriptus are species that have shown a tendency to expand their ranges and that might find suitable habitats in Texas. The best defense against invasive mosquito species is systematic, coordinated surveillance that will enable early detection and response.

Vector-borne diseases represent a wide variety of biologic systems. Vector control can reduce transmission of pathogens from arthropods, but the activities involved will vary according to many factors—from the vector species to resource availability. At a general level, vector control can be divided into personal protection and community protection. Some of the interventions are the same for each, but personal protection reduces bites on the individual person, whereas community protection achieves population-level effects on the vectors, either by reducing their numbers or by shortening their population longevity. We are fortunate to be at a point in history where many new methods for vector control are being developed. Getting public health impact from them will require more than new tools: it will also require strong organization from the World Health Organization and other entities.

We evaluated the potential of a granular formulation of Metarhizium brunneum F52 containing microsclerotia (MbMSc granules) for control of Aedes aegypti by targeting eggs. MbMSc granules produced infective conidia within 14 days after application to 2.5 g moist potting soil, producing 5.9 x 10(5), 2.08 x 10(6) and 6.85 x 10(6) conidia from 1, 5 and 25 mg MbMSc granules, respectively. Application of MbMSc triggered premature eclosion of eggs (EC50 = 12 mg) with percentages as high as 31 +/- 2.9% and 67 +/- 4.3% of the eggs treated with 5 and 25 mg MbMSc granules, respectively, after 14 days on moist filter paper. Premature eclosion of eggs started at 3 days subsequent to MbMSc granule application and survival of larvae was significantly reduced for granule treated eggs (74 +/- 2.2%, 39 +/- 2.0% and 23 +/- 4.9% larvae survived for 1, 5 and 25 mg granule treatments, respectively, EC50 = 4.9 mg). When MbMSc granules were applied in moist potting soil with mosquito eggs, rates of 1, 5 and 25 mg of MbMSc granules significantly reduced adult emergence with only 81 +/- 2.1%, 47 +/- 1.9%, and 34 +/- 2.1% emergence, respectively (EC50 = 7 mg). Eggs treated with increasing concentrations of fungal conidia enhanced premature eclosion of eggs with an EC50 = 1.6 x 10(6) conidia/mL. Our results demonstrate that MbMSc granules are a promising candidate for control of A. aegypti and that fermentative production of Mb F52 microsclerotia as the active propagule has the potential for use for mosquito control.

The biorational approach is usually defined as a series of negatives centered around avoidance of synthetic chemicals, minimizing environmental damage, and lowering the risk of unpredicted toxicity. Widely-accepted biorational products in vector control, like Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis based larvicides, have had a tremendous impact. It may be useful to broaden the definition of biorational to other rational approaches, like biological control, mass release of sterile or genetically-modified insects, and highly targeted use of pesticides. The invention of effective products is a challenge, and the scientific community has been very successful at finding innovative ways of performing vector control. Development of those inventions into widely-used tools can be even harder than their discovery. Researchers can do their part in the process by maintaining contact with the many kinds of disciplines required to get a product to market. This Introductory Chapter highlights the impacts of previous technologies, the current state of our field, and the possibilities for continuing progress in biorationals for vector control.

In a Perspective accompanying Abad-Franch and colleagues, Lorenz von Seidlein, Alexander Kekulé, and Daniel Strickman discuss the importance of developing effective strategies to minimize mosquito-borne transmission of human diseases.

[Extract] Dengue virus (DENV) is a self-limiting illness in tropical and subtropical regions around the globe caused by four closely related, but distinct, virus serotypes (DENV-1, -2, -3, and -4) that are transmitted among humans by mosquitoes, primarily Aedes aegypti [1]. Approximately 4 billion people living in more than 128 countries are at risk of infection [2]. Each year there are an estimated 400 million new infections, of which about 100 million manifest as apparent illness [3]. The outcome of human infections ranges from asymptomatic to mild illness to severe, life-threatening disease [4]. DENV not only causes more human morbidity and mortality than any other arthropod-borne virus but it is also a growing public health threat. There has been a dramatic 4-fold increase in dengue cases between 1990–2013 and dengue continues to expand in geographic range [2,3,5,6].

BACKGROUND: Recent changes in climate and human behavior have led to dramatic increases in the abundance and geographic expansion of invasive mosquito vectors such as Aedes albopictus. Although source reduction has been shown to be effective in reducing mosquito populations, thousands of backyards need to be inspected during door-to-door campaigns, which is labor intensive and expensive. We identified 'hot spots' as high (five or more female or male Ae. albopictus) adult mosquito populations at very focal locations. We tested whether hot spot source reduction efforts were effective in reducing mosquito populations in the early summer season (June to July).RESULTS: Analysis of historical data from the study sites indicated the proportion of hot spots in the control site relative to the intervention site was much greater in 2011, when hot spot treatments were applied to the intervention site, than in 2012, 2013 and 2014 combined, when no sites were treated [OR (95% CI) = 3.9 (1.8, 8.5), Z = 3.39, P < 0.001).CONCLUSION: Hot spot treatments can be incorporated into existing integrated mosquito management programs to increase effectiveness while reducing the time, cost and effort spent on methods such as door-to-door source reduction. Published 2015. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

When possible, oviparous females should deposit eggs in sites that maximize the future performance of their offspring. Therefore, studies of oviposition behavior may uncover parameters important to offspring fitness. Gravid female Aedes albopictus (Skuse) were given a choice of containers with leaf infusion or plain water, either open or with a cover with a small opening, and their behavior was compared under summer (long day, higher temperature) or fall (short day, lower temperature) regimes. Open containers with leaf infusion were always preferred, but over time, summer females expanded their choices to oviposit in all containers and follow-up experiments indicated that the number of eggs laid was inversely correlated to the number of eggs present. In contrast, fall females laying diapausing eggs that do not hatch until the spring, accumulated eggs in open containers with food resulting in high egg densities. Combined, these results demonstrate a seasonal shift that suggests either high winter egg mortality or safety in numbers. It also demonstrates that female Ae. albopictus change their behavior based on cues associated with expected added risk, which varies across time and space. The wide distribution of summer eggs across container types may contribute to the fast expansion of Ae. albopictus across its invasive range, but egg accumulation in the fall may be exploited for control.

The tribe Aedini (Family Culicidae) contains approximately one-quarter of the known species of mosquitoes, including vectors of deadly or debilitating disease agents. This tribe contains the genus Aedes, which is one of the three most familiar genera of mosquitoes. During the past decade, Aedini has been the focus of a series of extensive morphology-based phylogenetic studies published by Reinert, Harbach, and Kitching (RH&K). Those authors created 74 new, elevated or resurrected genera from what had been the single genus Aedes, almost tripling the number of genera in the entire family Culicidae. The proposed classification is based on subjective assessments of the "number and nature of the characters that support the branches" subtending particular monophyletic groups in the results of cladistic analyses of a large set of morphological characters of representative species. To gauge the stability of RH&K's generic groupings we reanalyzed their data with unweighted parsimony jackknife and maximum-parsimony analyses, with and without ordering 14 of the characters as in RH&K. We found that their phylogeny was largely weakly supported and their taxonomic rankings failed priority and other useful taxon-naming criteria. Consequently, we propose simplified aedine generic designations that 1) restore a classification system that is useful for the operational community; 2) enhance the ability of taxonomists to accurately place new species into genera; 3) maintain the progress toward a natural classification based on monophyletic groups of species; and 4) correct the current classification system that is subject to instability as new species are described and existing species more thoroughly defined. We do not challenge the phylogenetic hypotheses generated by the above-mentioned series of morphological studies. However, we reduce the ranks of the genera and subgenera of RH&K to subgenera or informal species groups, respectively, to preserve stability as new data become available.

Suppression of Aedes albopictus populations is a substantial challenge for mosquito control programs globally because juveniles of this species are found in numerous kinds of domestic artificial containers that are difficult to detect, access, and eliminate. We conducted a multi-year assessment of the effect of different interventions to control Ae. albopictus near the northernmost geographic boundary of the species in temperate North America and deployed an array of BG-Sentinel traps for adult surveillance. Here we present the results of a comparative examination of adult sex ratios in urban and suburban areas, shifts in sex ratios after control interventions, and a discussion of the critical drivers of population dynamics of Ae. albopictus in our area. We collected significantly more male mosquitoes in urban as compared to suburban areas in June through September, but not in May (p < 0.001). The higher number of male mosquitoes in urban areas could be attributed to a higher number of larval habitats within a closer proximity of the surveillance traps and the lower flight dispersal of males. Following application of adulticides in urban areas, Ae. albopictus male populations were reduced by 88% on average, which was higher than the 69% reduction in female populations. The higher reduction of male mosquitoes could be attributed to the smaller body mass of the males and their higher susceptibility to adulticides. The results of this study are directly relevant to the development of suitable control strategies that depend on manipulation of males, such as the sterile insect technique. The results could also be used to refine mosquito abatement by providing more accurate methods to determine the need and timing of vector control.

The recent expansion of Aedes albopictus, a day-biting mosquito, to densely inhabited areas in the northeastern Atlantic states of the USA has dramatically increased the problem that mosquitoes create for urban and suburban residents. We quantified the impact of mosquitoes on residents' quality of life within the context of a comprehensive area-wide integrated pest management program to control Ae. albopictus in two counties (Mercer and Monmouth) in New Jersey. We interviewed residents of 121 randomly selected households in both counties between October and November 2010. We asked residents about their experience with mosquitoes in their neighborhood and the importance of the ability to relax outdoors without mosquitoes compared to other neighborhood characteristics (1 = not important, 5 = extremely important). We rated residents' utility based on paired comparisons to known states from the EuroQol health description system. The majority (54.6%) of respondents considered mosquitoes to be a problem. Respondents reported an average of 7.1 mosquito bites in a typical week during that summer. Mosquitoes prevented 59.5% of residents from enjoying their outdoor activities at least to some extent. Residents rated the mosquito acceptability (mean ± standard deviation) during that summer on a scale of 0 (mosquito invasion) to 100 (no mosquitoes) at 56.7±28.7, and their overall utility at 0.87±0.03. This is comparable to living with up to two risk factors for diabetes (i.e., abdominal obesity, body mass index of 28 or more, reported cholesterol problems, diagnosis of hypertension, or history of cardiovascular disease) or women experiencing menstrual disorders. Respondents rated the importance of enjoying outdoor activities without mosquitoes (4.69±0.80) comparable to that of neighborhood safety (4.74±0.80) and higher than that of a clean neighborhood (4.59±0.94). In conclusion, New Jersey residents reported that mosquitoes decreased their utility by 0.13, comparable to the loss from worrisome health risk factors, underscoring the importance of controlling this problem.

Aedes albopictus is the most invasive mosquito in the world, an important disease vector, and a biting nuisance that limits outdoor activities. Area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) is the recommended control strategy. We conducted an economic evaluation of the AW-IPM project in Mercer and Monmouth Counties, New Jersey with a controlled design (AW-IPM vs. control) from 2009 through 2011. The study analyzed financial documents and staff time for AW-IPM and surveyed an average of 415 randomly chosen households in AW-IPM and control areas each fall from 2008 through 2011. Hours lost from yard and porch activities were calculated as differences between actual and potential hours of these activities in an average summer week if there had been no mosquito concerns. Net estimated benefits of AW-IPM were based on cross-over and difference-in-difference analyses. Reductions in hours lost were valued based on respondents' willingness to pay for a hypothetical extra hour free of mosquitoes spent on yard or porch activities and literature on valuation of a quality adjusted life year (QALY). The incremental cost of AW-IPM per adult was $41.18 per year. Number of hours lost due to mosquitoes in AW-IPM areas between the base year (2008) and the intervention years (2009-2011) declined by 3.30 hours per summer week in AW-IPM areas compared to control areas. Survey respondents valued this improvement at $27.37 per adult per summer week. Over the 13-week summer, an average adult resident gained 42.96 hours of yard and porch time, worth $355.82. The net benefit over the summer was $314.63. With an average of 0.0027 QALYs gained per adult per year, AW-IPM was cost effective at $15,300 per QALY gained. The benefit-cost ratio from hours gained was 8.64, indicating that each $1 spent on AW-IPM gave adults additional porch and yard time worth over $8.

, 2007). All exhibit several of the following characteristics: i) Large amounts of compound must be applied ii) These compounds disrupt behavior on contact or from a short distance iii) They affect the behavior of a wide-range of arthropods iv) Their mode of action has not been well-established. The develop-ment of area repellents, as opposed to topical repellents, is even more challenging since AI dilution is greater in a space treatment than on a surface area. The original DEET composition patent was filed in 1946 by Samuel I. Gertler although the identification of its repellent properties was not made until 1952 at the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Bernier & Tsikolia, 2011). Starting with its release as a publicly-available product in 1957, DEET eventu-ally replaced most of the other repellent AIs during the 1960s and 1970s. It has dominated the market due to low cost, long duration on the skin, broad spectrum of activity, and good toxicological profile (Frances, 2007). Because of these proper-ties and its long history of use, DEET is the gold standard by which all other repellents are compared.The first evidence of the molecular mode of action of DEET suggested this compound selectively inhibits hetero-meric complexes of insect odorant receptors (ORs) (Ditzen

Personal protection measures against biting arthropods include topical insect repellents, area repellents, insecticide‐treated bednets and treated clothing. The literature on the effectiveness of personal protection products against arthropods is mainly limited to studies of prevention of bites, rather than prevention of disease. Tungiasis was successfully controlled by application of topical repellents and scrub typhus was reduced through the use of treated clothing. Successful reduction of leishmaniasis was achieved through the use of topical repellents, treated bednets and treated clothing in individual studies. Malaria has been reduced by the use of insecticide‐treated bednets (ITN), certain campaigns involving topical repellents, and the combination of treated bednets and topical repellents. Although area repellents such as mosquito coils are used extensively, their ability to protect humans from vector‐transmitted pathogens has not been proven. Taken together, the literature indicates that personal protection measures must be used correctly to be effective. A study that showed successful control of malaria by combining treated bednets and topical repellents suggests that combinations of personal protection measures are likely to be more effective than single methods. Implementation of successful programmes based on personal protection will require a level of cooperation commonly associated with other basic societal functions, such as education and food safety.