Plant material is composed largely of organic or carbon-containing compounds including carbohydrates (sugars, starches, fructans, cellulose, and hemicellulose), lipids (oils composed of glycerol and fatty acids), and proteins (composed of amino acids linked in chains). Plant cells have most of the same components as animal cells, but they are different from animal cells in containing chloroplasts for photosynthesis and cell walls outside of their cell membranes. Many plant cells have large vacuoles for storage of water and products made in the cells. This includes chemicals that discourage herbivory. Different plant tissue types have specific functions, for example, parenchyma for synthesizing and storing products, mesophyll for photosynthesis, and sclerenchyma for support. Forage plants have developed slightly different systems for energy metabolism for cool moist environments versus warm, dry environments. Carbohydrates produced in a plant can be stored for a short term to be used the next day or for a long term. Plants have protective coatings to prevent evaporation of water and to prevent injury to tissues. One system of vessels brings water and minerals through the roots to the green shoots. Another system of vessels takes dissolved products of photosynthesis and metabolism and distributes these products to other tissues. Specialized regions of rapid cell division are precursors to new leaves, stems, branches, and flowers. There is a hormone-based mechanism to stimulate new growth and increase the degree of branching after the tips of plant shoots have been removed by cutting or grazing.

Pasture plant identification is a critical component of pasture management. Both grasses and legumes are easy to identify when they are flowering, which seldom occurs within intensively grazed pastures. Therefore, the challenge is to identify grasses and legumes when they are in a vegetative state, with only leaves and supporting structures present. This chapter provides a primer for identification of 10 grass and eight legume species that are the most common cool-season forages in North American pastures.

Increasing the biodiversity of ecosystems provides ecosystem services to landowners and the general public. Planting a greater diversity of forages encourages a greater diversity of wildlife to inhabit a property. Sometimes, too many of one species of animal is a big problem. However, not every animal is a nuisance. Extra income can be earned on rural properties by attracting fee-paying clients who want to do birdwatching, hunting, fishing, wildlife photography, fox hunting, or trail riding. Adding and removing species from ecosystems can have dramatic direct and indirect effects on other species. Simply removing one predator species can have cascading effects on many others and last for decades, while adding one species can also have lasting negative or positive effects on an environment. There are methods to prevent or reduce the probability of predatory or damaging animals entering your property and methods to control them with varying degrees of success. Identifying which animal species are present, which you want to encourage, and which you want to discourage are recommended initial steps in coexisting with wildlife and are worth reviewing periodically. Both lethal and nonlethal methods of removing nuisance animals should be part of a program of integrated pest management.

Background Alfalfa is a globally important forage crop. Cultivars are characterized by fall dormancy (FD). FD affects biomass yield and winter survival and is used to identify appropriate growing regions of cultivars. It has historically been assessed by measuring the natural height of regrowth in autumn of spaced plants in the field. Because commercial alfalfa is normally grown as a solid planted sward, FD could be different if plants were grown under real production conditions. The objective of this experiment was to assess whether FD ratings obtained from swards were similar to those obtained on spaced plants. Methods We evaluated 20 alfalfa cultivars in field trials established in 2015 at five locations in the United States. We harvested the trials in early autumn and measured regrowth plant height approximately 3 weeks later in 2015 and 2016. Results Autumn plant height responded as expected for the established check cultivars in all locations. Fall dormancy ratings for cultivars under both management systems were highly correlated. Conclusions Estimating FD from spaced plant height measurements in autumn is very robust, and using height data from sward plots gives equivalent results to that measured in spaced plant nurseries. This finding has many practical advantages.

Genetically engineered alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) cultivars with reduced lignin (RL) concentration are commercially available but their change in nutritive value as the crop matures within a growth cycle has not been thoroughly documented and might differ from non-RL cultivars. This research documents changes in forage nutritive value of a RL cultivar (HarvXtra-008) and two non-RL cultivars (54R02 and WL355RR) within five growth cycles across 2 yr in six states in the United States. A randomized complete block design with a split-plot arrangement of treatment randomization was used, with harvest growth cycles assigned to whole plots and cultivars to subplots in field trials. Cultivars were sampled on 3- to 4-d intervals between day 20 and 37 of regrowth. HarvXtra-008 was consistently lower (P <= .05) in acid detergent lignin (ADL) by 7-10% and amylase-treated neutral detergent fiber (aNDF) by 2-10% and 4-9% greater (P <= .05) in neutral detergent fiber digestibility (NDFD) than non-RL cultivars across all sampling dates. Cultivar x regrowth duration interactions (P <= .05) were found only for ADL and aNDF in two of the five growth cycles sampled, when regression coefficients were always smaller for HarvXtra-008 than 54R02. We calculated that the interval between harvests can be extended on average from 8 to 11 d for HarvXtra-008 compared with non-RL cultivars while maintaining adequate fiber digestibility for animals with high nutritional requirements; however, the extent of that longer harvest interval varied from 2 to 20 d depending on environmental conditions.

ABSTRACTNutritive value of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is limited by indigestible cell wall constituents, especially lignin. Commercially released genetically engineered alfalfa cultivars with reduced lignin (RL) concentration were developed recently by downregulation of the caffeoyl CoA 3‐O‐methyltransferase (CCoAOMT) enzyme in the lignin pathway. This research compared forage nutritive value and dry matter yield of a RL cultivar (‘HarvXtra‐008’) with non‐RL cultivars (‘54R02’ and ‘WL355RR’) across six states in the northern United States. A randomized complete block design with a split‐plot restriction on treatment randomization was used, where harvest intervals (28, 33, and 38 d) were assigned to whole plots and cultivars were the subplots. Harvest interval and cultivar effects were significant (P < 0.001) for all variables, and cultivars responded similarly across harvest intervals in that forage yield increased and nutritive value declined with increasing harvest interval. HarvXtra‐008 was consistently greater in forage nutritive value than non‐RL cultivars averaged across harvest intervals: it was 8.4% lower in acid detergent lignin, 3.5 to 7.5% lower in amylase‐treated neutral detergent fiber, and 5.3 to 7.7% greater in neutral detergent fiber digestibility, but 4.8 to 7.0% lower in dry matter yield. HarvXtra‐008 was slightly higher or similar in nutritive value and had similar or greater dry matter yield compared with non‐RL cultivars harvested on a harvest schedule 5 to 10 d earlier and more frequent. Thus, RL alfalfa can extend the time interval when it is possible to harvest forage with adequate fiber digestibility for animals with high energy requirements.

Core Ideas Orchardgrass exhibits strong genotype × environment interaction across U.S. production area. There is limited association between US orchardgrass production areas. The choice of best orchardgrass cultivar should be based on local production conditions. Thirteen orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) cultivars were evaluated across 4 years at five US field locations in Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Utah, Virginia, and Wisconsin. The objective was to determine the relationship among the five locations for orchardgrass agronomic performance. Cultivar × environment interaction was identified for dry matter (DM) yield, stand percentage, maturity rating, disease rating, spring regrowth, and fall regrowth. Significant concordance values were moderate to high (τ = 0.46 to 0.84) among the locations, with the exception of Wisconsin, which showed little association with the other locations. These rankings indicated that there was little association among the locations for orchardgrass performance. This was further illustrated by the mean values of the cultivars for each trait. In only a few cases was a cultivar among the highest ranking for a trait at more than one location. Notable exceptions were the generally high DM yield of the cultivars Benchmark Plus and Persist and the high disease resistance of the cultivars Barlegro, Excellate SA, and Harvestar. The results illustrate that orchardgrass cultivar adaptation is region specific within this subset of U.S. production areas.

Core Ideas High levels of ash content provide no nutritional benefit to livestock. A hay merger or sidebar rake resulted in less ash content compared to a wheel rake. Rake type rarely resulted in differences in forage nutritive values. High levels of ash content are problematic in hay since ash provides no nutritional benefit to livestock. Hay raking may impact ash content, but the effect of different hay rake types on ash content is unknown. The objectives were to determine the effect of rake type on ash content and forage nutritive values of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) hay. Replicated trials were conducted on two cuttings of alfalfa in Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. During raking, two swath rows were combined using one of the following rake types: wheel, sidebar, rotary, or merger. Samples were collected during the four phases of hay harvest: standing forage, post‐cut, post‐raked, and post‐baled or chopped and analyzed for ash content and forage nutritive values. Ash content was different in five of the six sites‐cuttings post‐raking (P ≤ 0.05). The hay merger and sidebar rake resulted in the least amount of ash (90–136 g kg−1) while the wheel rake (100–153 g kg−1) resulted in the greatest amount of ash. Differences in forage nutritive values were rarely observed due to rake type and ranged from 200–241 g kg−1 crude protein (CP), 374–480 g kg−1 NDF, and 393 to 532 g kg−1 neutral detergent fiber digestibility (NDFd) post‐raking. First cutting alfalfa differed in relative forage quality (RFQ) post‐raking where the hay merger and sidebar rake tended to result in greater RFQ values (121–165) compared with the wheel rake (114–160; P ≤ 0.05). Using a hay merger or sidebar rake to combine swaths resulted in less ash content compared with a wheel rake; however, rake type rarely resulted in differences in forage nutritive values.

High stocking densities on grazed pastures may promote nitrous oxide (N2O) loss from soil to the atmosphere. However, studies of N2O fluxes in cool-season pastures of North America are lacking. We performed two experiments in which measured N2O fluxes were bootstrapped with re-sampling (n = 100, with 10,000 iterations), which allowed us to generate an empirical distribution of mean fluxes to understand how pasture management strategies might affect N2O emissions. In Experiment 1, N2O fluxes were estimated in southern Wisconsin pastures under rotational grazing, continuous grazing, haymaking, and no agronomic production. Nitrous oxide fluxes were significantly positive under rotational grazing at our research farm [21.6 (se = 10.3) μg m−2 h−1], but not significantly different than zero under the other three treatments or rotationally grazed paddocks across eight working farms. In Experiment 2, we measured N2O fluxes in eastern Nebraska before, during, and after two rotational grazing events under two N-input treatments—inorganic N fertilizer and supplemented dried distillers grains—and an unfertilized control. Nitrous oxide fluxes were positive (20–100 μg m−2 h−1) in periods following rain, but otherwise not significantly different than zero. Post-grazing, N2O emissions were lower from the control than fertilized or supplemented treatments. These experiments show cool-season pastures can be a source of N2O to the atmosphere, but primarily following grazing events that coincide with significant precipitation. However, even though on-farm paddocks are in varying states of recovery from defoliation, farm scale emissions, although episodic, are likely to be positive in years with above average precipitation.

The climate in the upper Midwest is noted for extreme weather events that greatly increase the risk of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) winter injury. An electronic survey was sent to alfalfa producers and crop consultants in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa with the goal of providing a retrospective assessment of the causes of alfalfa winter injury during the winter of 2012–2013. Almost all alfalfa producers who responded to the survey observed some winter injury, and a majority of crop consultants indicated more than 2001 acres had been affected in among their clients. A majority of crop consultants and alfalfa producers indicated that they perceived that freezing rain during the winter of 2013 combined with the dry fall of 2012 and the lack of snow cover caused alfalfa winter injury. Along with weather events, management practices also affected the incidence of alfalfa winter injury, with the lowest occurrences of winter injury observed in fields that had 13 or more inches of alfalfa regrowth. The results from the survey confirm that alfalfa winter injury was probably caused by a combination of weather events and management decisions.

Headline fungicide was recently registered for management of foliar diseases on alfalfa. The effect of disease control on yield, forage quality, and potential return on investment for fungicide application was determined for field experiments conducted at five locations in 2012, three in Wisconsin and two in Minnesota. Headline reduced defoliation in 12 out of 14 harvests and increased forage yield and return on investment in 5 out 12 harvests compared to the untreated control. Headline plus the insecticide Warrior II reduced defoliation in 10 out of 14 harvests and increased yield and return on investment in four harvests compared to Warrior II alone. Two common foliar pathogens were highly sensitive to pyraclostrobin, the active ingredient in Headline. For Phoma medicaginis, the in vitro EC50 was 2.3 ng pyraclostrobin/ml and for Stemphylium globuliferum the EC50 was 52 ng pyraclostrobin/ml. The results indicate that fungicide application can increase yields under higher disease pressure and increase crude protein when the crop is harvested at later developmental stages. Accepted for publication 25 June 2013. Published 17 September 2013.

Many horse owners are concerned about sugar and fructosan levels in pastures and hay. While levels of these components have not changed in forages over the last century, the needs of horses have. Significant range in nonstructural carbohydrate contents of all grass species would allow for selection of varieties with lowered levels of these components. However, the grass seed industry must perceive a market for these types of grass before they would invest in the development of varieties and seed production and marketing of such types. Levels of these components currently vary with species, management, and the environment in which the plant is/has grown. Horse owners should be aware of these differences and use them to the benefit of their horses. Significantly lower levels of sugars and fructosans can be obtained by selecting grass species for low water soluble carbohydrate, then pastures can be managed or hay harvested with management practices favoring lowered nonfibrous carbohydrates. Forage can be analyzed for fructan or sugar, starch, and fructan can be estimated from nonfibrous carbohydrate analysis which is commonly determined in forage analysis.

Poplar (Populus) and birch (Betula) species are widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, where they are foundation species in forest ecosystems and serve as important sources of pulpwood. The ecology of these species is strongly linked to their foliar chemistry, creating demand for a rapid, inexpensive method to analyze phytochemistry. Our study demonstrates the feasibility of using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) as an inexpensive, high-throughput tool for determining primary (e.g., nitrogen, sugars, starch) and secondary (e.g., tannins, phenolic glycosides) foliar chemistry of Populus and Betula species, and identifies conditions necessary for obtaining reliable quantitative data. We developed calibrations with high predictive power (residual predictive deviations ≤ 7.4) by relating phytochemical concentrations determined with classical analytical methods (e.g., spectrophotometric assays, liquid chromatography) to NIR spectra, using modified partial least squares regression. We determine that NIRS, although less sensitive and precise than classical methods for some compounds, provides useful predictions in a much faster, less expensive manner than do classical methods.

Management‐intensive rotational grazing is used by many farmers seeking to balance profitability, environmental stewardship, and quality of life. Productivity of pastures in much of the upper Midwest is limited to April through October, so promoting high quality forage production during the grazing season and for winter storage is critical to dairy and beef farm profitability. We conducted an experiment on pastures dominated by Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensisL.), orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerataL.), meadow fescue [Schedonorus pratensis(Huds.) P. Beauv.], perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenneL.), and white clover (Trifolium repensL.) to compare forage production, forage quality, and root production under management‐intensive rotational grazing, continuous grazing, haymaking, and land with no agronomic management. Rotational paddocks were grazed by cow‐calf pairs monthly for ∼2 d and then allowed to rest for ∼28 d. Plots designated for haymaking were harvested two times per growing season. Potential utilizable forage, quantified by incorporating the estimates of refused and nonutilized biomass, and relative forage quality were significantly greater under management‐intensive rotational grazing when compared to the other treatments. Root production in the surface 15 cm was significantly lower under both grazing treatments compared to the undefoliated control site. The perception of improved production has been used to advocate for rotationally grazed over continuously grazed systems in subhumid pasture, but experimental results have been equivocal. Our results point to managed grazing as a viable alternative to continuous grazing and haymaking in terms of both forage production and quality but not root production.

Higher costs associated with glyphosate tolerant (GT) compared to nonGT alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.) seed stimulates questions about reduced seeding rates in combination with the GT technology. Our objective was to determine if glyphosate herbicide in combination with GT alfalfa could improve the persistence, productivity, or forage quality when seeding alfalfa at a reduced rate. Glyphosate‐tolerant alfalfa was seeded at seven locations into conventionally tilled seedbeds at rates of 6.7, 11.2, 15.7, and 20.2 kg ha −1 pure live seed (PLS) in the spring of 2006. Stand density, botanical composition, yield, and forage quality were determined for each seeding rate under three herbicide treatments: (i) glyphosate [N‐(phosphonomethyl)glycine], (ii) a nonglyphosate herbicide, and (iii) no herbicide. Level of weed infestation was different among locations, but there were no weed infestation × seeding rate or herbicide × seeding rate interaction. Lower seeding rates had lower plant mortality than higher seeding rates. Seeding rate had no affect on forage quality or weed content at any harvest. At only the first harvest in the seeding year did the 6.7 kg ha −1 seeding rate produce less alfalfa forage (about 250 kg ha −1 ) than other seeding rates. In both the seeding year and year after seeding, using herbicides resulted in less weed and greater alfalfa yield than when no herbicide was used. Regardless of weed control treatment, seeding rates of GT alfalfa greater than 6.7 kg ha −1 did not improve weed control, alfalfa yield, total herbage (alfalfa + weeds) yield, or forage quality.

Roundup Ready (RR) technology provides a new approach for weed control during alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) establishment. We determined the effect of RR and conventional establishment systems on alfalfa yield, weed yield, and forage quality when alfalfa was established using solo-seeding or oat mulch methods. A RR system was a RR alfalfa in combination with glyphosate (Roundup) and a conventional system was a non-RR variety with imazamox (Raptor). Non-RR and RR alfalfas were also seeded with an oat companion crop. Alfalfa yields, plant populations, and forage quality were similar for the RR and conventional systems within solo-seeding and oat establishment methods in the seeding year. Total seeding-year alfalfa yield was greater when solo-seeded using an herbicide than when seeded with an oat companion crop harvested at boot. Alfalfa yield for the oat mulch and oat companion crop treatments were not consistently different over locations.

Relative Feed Value (RFV) is an index of forage quality based on a sound concept: voluntary intake of digestible dry matter (DDM). The equations used to predict DM intake (DMI) and DDM concentration from laboratory analyses often, however, provide unacceptable estimates of RFV. In order to provide the opportunity to use new prediction equations that are more accurate and forage-specific, we propose a new index called Relative Forage Quality (RFQ). The basis of RFQ is voluntary intake of total digestible nutrients (TDN). Based on animal data, RFQ and RFV values are equal, and the reference values are the same, i.e., 100 = full-bloom alfalfa. When predicted RFQ and RFV values differ, however, RFQ should be related more closely to actual forage quality. A nation-wide communication network is needed to foster the development of new equations, help laboratories choose appropriate equations, and educate clients about the new program.

Vegetative riparian buffer strips are typically used to curb stream degradation due to cattle grazing, but intensive rotational grazing has shown promise as an alternative best management practice. We compared aquatic macroinvertebrate assemblages among stream segments within continuously grazed pastures, intensive rotationally grazed pastures, undisturbed grassy vegetative buffer strips, and undisturbed woody vegetative buffer strips. We collected macroinvertebrate and stream sedimentation data from four streams in each land use category in two consecutive years. In an attempt to account for inherent watershed variability among streams, we represented watershed condition with a sample collected upstream of each treatment reach. Watershed condition tended to have greater influence on macroinvertebrate measures than local riparian land use. However, local riparian land use influences were apparent if watershed condition was statistically accounted for with analysis of covariance. Stream reaches with intensive rotational grazing tended to have macroinvertebrate assemblage characteristics intermediate of the buffer and continuously grazed reaches. Although we detected some differences in macroinvertebrate assemblages that apparently reflected very local land use, our results suggest the macroinvertebrates were mostly responding to large-scale watershed influences.

As alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.) cultivars have become more numerous in recent years, the issue of precison of alfalfa forage yield determinations has become more important. The objective of this study was to develop a set of recommendations for improving the precision of alfalfa cultivar forage‐yield estimates. Inferences were derived from 49 alfalfa cultivar trials conducted at 13 Wisconsin locations between 1984 and 1996. Although randomized complete block designs were sometimes effective, spatial analysis offers considerable potential for improved precision. Increasing the number of replicates was expected to be more effective than increasing plot size. Trial data should be discarded only when severe and irreversible biological or physical disturbances are present. If researchers feel the need to discard data or entire trials on the basis of low statistical precision as an additional criterion, the decision should be based on (i) nonsignificant F ‐tests for cultivars of all individual years and for the combined over‐years analysis or (ii) an unusually high mean square error relative to the trial mean or range among cultivar means. Trial data should not be rejected based on the coefficient of variation (CV). Genotype × environment interactions followed patterns based largely on expectations of edaphic and climatic environmental differences. Inherent precision of alfalfa cultivar trials did not influence cultivar rankings per se.

Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences EducationVolume 29, Issue 1 p. 60-67 Article Wisconsin's Grazing Networks: History, Structure, and Function Laura K. Paine, Corresponding Author Laura K. Paine laura.paine@ces.uwex.edu Univ. of Wisconsin Extension-Columbia County, 120 W. Conant Street, P.O. Box 567, Portage, WI, 53901Corresponding author (laura.paine@ces.uwex.edu).Search for more papers by this authorRichard M. Klemme, Richard M. Klemme College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Univ.of Wisconsin, 146 Agriculture Hall, Madison, WI, 53706Search for more papers by this authorDaniel J. Undersander, Daniel J. Undersander Agronomy Dep., 1575 Linden Dr., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 53706Search for more papers by this authorMargaret Welsh, Margaret Welsh Univ. of Wisconsin Land Tenure Center, 1357 University Ave., Madison, WI, 53706Search for more papers by this author Laura K. Paine, Corresponding Author Laura K. Paine laura.paine@ces.uwex.edu Univ. of Wisconsin Extension-Columbia County, 120 W. Conant Street, P.O. Box 567, Portage, WI, 53901Corresponding author (laura.paine@ces.uwex.edu).Search for more papers by this authorRichard M. Klemme, Richard M. Klemme College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Univ.of Wisconsin, 146 Agriculture Hall, Madison, WI, 53706Search for more papers by this authorDaniel J. Undersander, Daniel J. Undersander Agronomy Dep., 1575 Linden Dr., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 53706Search for more papers by this authorMargaret Welsh, Margaret Welsh Univ. of Wisconsin Land Tenure Center, 1357 University Ave., Madison, WI, 53706Search for more papers by this author First published: 2000 https://doi.org/10.2134/jnrlse.2000.0060Citations: 13Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat ABSTRACT Management intensive grazing (MIG) is an alternative livestock production system that involves producing the bulk of a herd's forage requirements from pasture. Grazing is managed to maximize the productivity of the pasture and reduce overall feed costs. In contrast to confinement systems, MIG involves feeding a complex mixture of fresh forage grasses and legumes characterized by frequent changes in quantity and nutritional quality. The skills needed to manage this system well are not easily learned via traditional sources of agricultural information. Livestock producers in Wisconsin have capitalized on the potential of farmer-to-farmer learning by forming numerous grazing networks throughout the state. In the fall of 1998, we conducted a survey of grazing network coordinators to evaluate the structure and management of grazing networks, types and effectiveness of activities undertaken, and how state and federal agencies are supporting and can support the networks' efforts without compromising their independence. Coordinators of all 23 Wisconsin networks were surveyed via mail or phone. Respondents were asked questions on the following topics: (i) network composition and size; (ii) structure and coordination; (iii) programming and activities; and (iv) challenges, concerns, and accomplishments. Responses suggest that grazing networks vary widely in their composition and structure, but share similar activities, interests, and concerns. Factors that influence the effectiveness of networks as a mechanism for farmer-to-farmer information exchange include regular communication, agency support, homogeneity, attention to the needs of both advanced and beginning graziers, and a personal commitment to the network on the part of individual members. Citing Literature Volume29, Issue12000Pages 60-67 RelatedInformation