Community-based tourism (CBT) projects often fail to enhance rural livelihoods because of poor fit with the local livelihood context and inequitable participation opportunities. Through a mixed-methods study on a CBT initiative in Carmelita, Guatemala, this research applied the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) to understand how tourism contributes to local livelihoods and residents' perceived barriers for participation. The authors applied ethnographic research methods (observation and semi-structured interviews with 43 Carmelita residents and 10 key informants) and analyzed wages and job distribution from tourism employment records. CBT supported a high, albeit gendered, distribution of tourism jobs across the community. Tourism was a fundamental, but not stand-alone, livelihood activity. Residents perceived few barriers to participate in tourism, but increasing formalization changed how they worked with tourists. Understanding tourism development within the local livelihood context and how CBT initiatives distribute tourism job opportunities is critical to meaningfully generate equitable income-earning opportunities within communities.

AbstractMultipurpose trees, like the moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.), have become extremely popular in an attempt to reduce food, nutritional, and economic instability. The significant benefits of moringa’s leaves, pods, seeds, roots, and flowers are used in a wide range of commercial fields, including medicine, cosmetics, food, animal feed, water purification, and more. We applied a questionnaire-based survey to reveal the uses, problems and solutions related to the knowledge, uses and constraints of moringa in the region of Chapainawabganj and Kushtia districts in Bangladesh. Including the easiest propagation process and the lowest cultivation costs, year-round flowering, and production provide moringa with a wide window of opportunity. Besides using regular pruning of moringa branches, respondents make trees bushy to increase fruit and leaf production. Respondents from both regions opined that moringa has a good market value, increases family income, increases opportunity for fallow land utilization, enhances employment opportunities, and is known as a nutritive and multipurpose tree. We were pleased to find that moringa output regularly exceeded previous production records in Bangladesh from 2014–16 to 2020–21. Furthermore, our survey shows that a 5-year-old moringa tree provides a satisfactory yield per season with its high market price and demand. Despite the extensive use of moringa fruits and leaves by respondents, its commercial potential remains largely undeveloped and unknown to them. Constraints like limited scientific knowledge and technological infrastructure are the reasons why the elusive potential of moringa in Bangladesh persists. There is ample opportunity to enhance moringa production via effective management techniques, which will satisfy community demand and create market opportunities both locally and internationally. As a result, smallholder farmers’ livelihoods and food and nutritional security can be improved.

Minnesota, USA has developed a watershed management approach called One Watershed One Plan (1W1P). 1W1P is a statewide program that seeks to manage water along natural boundaries, defined by hydrologic unit code 8 (HUC-8) watersheds. Historically, Minnesota relied upon each county to develop their own water management plan. State funding through the Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources (BWSR) was allocated based on proposed project applications sent to a review committee which then decided which project in a given county would get funding. This approach provided a vehicle for transferring state tax money back to the local government but failed to really solve trans-county, integrated water management problems. To solve both water quality and quantity issues a more focused approach with a larger payload of funding for a longer period of time was needed. Government alone cannot solve intrinsic water issues because most Minnesota landownership is private. In this paper we discuss how the private sector must be engaged up front in the water planning process for successful water management. We illustrate how public-private partnerships are essential for better water planning and management.

Internationally, numerous examples have been of efforts to promote community-based forest management (CBFM) through forest decentralization programs that promote forest conservation and livelihood improvements. Although there are successful examples, those efforts have been met with mixed success. This article proposes an analytical framework for evaluating the case studies of CBFM, highlighting the interconnection between community capital, land tenure, and markets. The analytical framework is used to analyze factors contributing to community forestry success focusing on two case studies in central India and northern Guatemala’s Maya Biosphere Reserve. We evaluate how the interplay of community capitals (i.e., community skills and resources), tenure, and markets is crucial for the successful replication of community forestry efforts. Specifically, we demonstrate that community capital factors such as social (bonding and linking), human, natural, and political; tenure factors such as a legal basis for rights, implementation of rights policy, community engagement in decision-making related to rights, withdrawal rights; and market factors such as market availability for the product, market accessibility for the producers, and profitability are the most important for facilitating and replicating community forestry efforts. Our framework can be used by nonprofits and policymakers to engage with community forestry planning as well as for monitoring and evaluation.

Due to the observed success of community-based management strategies, countries around the world have reformed forest policy to focus upon decentralization and community participation in forest management. Nonetheless, despite the commonly lauded benefits of communal forest management, not all community forest programs successfully achieve the dual goals of forest conservation and income generation. In an era when communal forest management is gaining global popularity, understanding factors that enable or constrain communities' communal forests and community forest enterprises will help ensure their success. A significant amount of academic research has focused upon identifying and summarizing factors that facilitate or impede community-based resource management. Understanding these factors is an important first step for individuals interested in understanding community forestry operations. The goal of this article is to guide individuals interested in delving deeper into an existing community forestry case. This article provides a framework that can be used to develop community-forestry case studies and guide analysis. The framework highlights the interconnection between community resources, national-scale policy implementation, and markets and provides key factors to consider when analyzing the local context of community-based natural resource management cases.

Constructed treatment wetlands are a common practice for filtering nitrogen from agricultural sub-surface (i.e. tile) drainage in the Midwest. Wetland size recommendations typically depend on watershed size, but little is known about the effectiveness of wetlands with a pooled area as small as 0.11 ha combined with a high infiltration rate and sub-surface treatment. A small, edge-of-field wetland treating tile drainage from a 10.1-ha row-crop field was constructed in 2013 adjacent to Elm Creek in Martin County, MN. The water, nitrate-nitrogen (NO3--N), and phosphorus (P) budgets were determined for 2013 to 2016. The wetland received an annual average of 12.6 m drainage water, 185 kg NO3--N, and 1.3 kg total phosphorus (TP) each of the four years of this study. It removed 67% of the input NO3-, but TP removal was inconclusive. The majority of NO3- was removed in the shallow groundwater flow after it infiltrated from the surface. Approximately 3.2 kg-P ha(-1) yr(-1) was removed by harvesting the vegetation in the wetland. Therefore, it can be concluded that NO3- removal in the shallow groundwater and TP removal through vegetation harvest were the primary means of removing each nutrient.

Internationally, the decentralization of forest management from central government control to collaborative stewardship by local communities is gaining popularity. Forest decentralization is seen as a means of promoting both conservation and community economic development while decreasing government agencies' management burdens. However, not all community forest programs have been able to successfully achieve both forest conservation and socio-economic development. A growing body of literature identifies under what circumstances local groups can collective action dilemmas in resource management. While a wealth of literature focuses on institutional influence in common-pool resource management, recent research emphasizes the need to understand both how the local context and local governance structures influence community forestry outcomes. The goal of this study is to understand how governance and community resources interact to facilitate or impede the establishment and management of community-based forest enterprises. This paper addresses this question through a cross-case analysis of community forest enterprises in the Maya Biosphere Reserve. Results highlight the importance of social capital reflecting a growing body of research that has found that local-level network-based relationships are an important factor that either facilitates or impedes community governance processes. In addition, for many attributes of good governance, the resources that are typically seen as the most difficult to measure such as cultural capital, human capital and social relationships were also seen as having the greatest impact on governance.

This study focused upon the governance characteristics of Community Forest Enterprises (CFEs) in the Maya Biosphere Reserve (MBR). The MBR is an excellent location for studying CFE governance due to the diversity of CFEs operating within the reserve. For example, CFEs vary based upon their legal entity (nonprofit, for-profit, or cooperative) and whether members live within the MBR or outside of the MBR. This research occurred between 2017 and 2019 and involved over 100 interviews with key informants in the reserve, document review, and direct observations of CFE operations. The study describes differences between the governance structures of CFEs in the reserve and investigates factors that enable or constrain equitable and effective CFE governance. The study highlights insights related to CFE membership, decision-making, investments in social and economic goals, and policy enforcement that can be helpful in improving the governance of CFEs in Guatemala and abroad.

Exploration of fruit tree-based agroforestry systems is essential for Bangladesh’s agriculture in the era of climate change scenarios and shrinking agricultural land in order to ensure food and nutrition security at household and national levels. In the present study, a traditional jujube/apple kul ( Zizyphus mauritiana ) orchard was converted into an agroforestry system by including summer vegetables (okra and Indian spinach) and spices (ginger and turmeric) with a view to achieving greater economic return, maximizing land use and providing food and nutritional support. Results revealed that heavily pruned jujube trees in the summer season displayed negligible loss of light accessibility to understory okra and Indian spinach, which contributed to their higher yields. Conversely, the growing canopy of jujube trees exerted moderate shade at the later stages of growth that helped to attain improved yield from ginger and turmeric, which are shade loving crops. Intriguingly, jujube trees were able to utilize a substantial amount of the fertilizers and irrigation applied to the understory crops, which eliminated the need for additional inputs for jujube trees under the agroforestry system. Soil nutrient dynamics also improved in the agroforestry system as crop residues and leaf litter were left in the field. Importantly, nutritionally-rich, sweet-tasting, attractively-colored apple kul has a greater market value and the lack of vegetable productionin the summer season triggered a higher market price for Indian spinach and okra. This collectively heightened the benefit–cost and land equivalent ratios. Concisely, the current study concluded that the jujube-based agroforestry system could be endorsed as a model approach throughout Bangladesh for upgrading food, nutrition and income security.

This chapter demonstrates the linkages among emerging integrated management systems for agriculture and forestry and indicate possible roles that agroforestry could play in the continuing development of these new land use strategies. It suggests possible approaches to overcoming constraints limiting the development of agroforestry in the United States. The chapter examines agricultural and forestry land use practices relative to certain biophysical and socioeconomic principles basic to natural resources management. It provides a historical perspective for the evolution of forest management and agricultural production practices and for the development of domestic agroforestry activities. The chapter highlights opportunities for the development of domestic agroforestry practices. Opportunities for the development and application of domestic agroforestry practices can be separated into ecological, economic, and social components for discussion purposes. The need for continuing education and training in agroforestry for both professionals and practitioners was recognized in the early 1990s.

This paper focuses upon the organizational governance of community forest enterprises (CFEs) in the Maya Biosphere Reserve (MBR) of Northern Guatemala. The MBR's community-forest concession system has become an international model for community-based forest management and community forest enterprise (CFE) development due to the socio-economic and ecological benefits that it has achieved. Many CFEs managing forest concessions within the reserve have been able to curb deforestation rates and improve local forest quality while enjoying jobs and income gained from selling timber and non-timber forest products. Income generated by CFEs supports sustainable livelihoods and incentivizes forest protection. However, while the forest-management practices in the reserve have been well documented, less is known about the internal governance of these CFEs and how these systems have developed over time. This paper focuses upon research conducted on the evolution of CFE organizational governance. Research involved interviews, document review, and observation. CFEs face unique challenges during different phases of their development. This paper outlines the challenges described by key informants in the MBR as well as how they were able to overcome these challenges. It then provides suggestions for future research and application.

This study quantified root biomass distribution; root accrual of C, N, P, and K; and changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) associated with alley-cropped switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata Bosc ex Link), intermediate wheatgrass [Thinopyrum intermedium (Host) Barkworth and Dewey 'Rush'], and a native polyculture planted between rows of 'NM6' poplar (Populus maximowiczii x P. nigra) and 'Fish Creek' willow (Salix purpurea) at two Minnesota sites (Empire and Granada). After 4 yr since establishment, SOC declined at each site but was not influenced by species selection. NM6 poplar-prairie cordgrass systems had among the highest root biomass, C, and nutrient accrual, with up to 16.3 Mg root biomass, 7.0 Mg C, 175 kg N, 31 kg P, and 97 kg K ha(-1). Fine roots were the largest fraction of belowground biomass, although course roots were also a large fraction for poplar and prairie cordgrass. Tree roots extended to 6 m into the crop alley, although 85-89% were within 1 m of tree rows, depending on tree species. Crop fine root biomass was reduced up to 67% at 1 m from tree rows and 20% at 3.5 m and was up to 142% greater in willow than in poplar alleys. Total root C was predominated by poplars at Empire regardless of herbaceous crop type, whereas the proportions of tree and crop root C varied by crop at Granada. These results suggest that prairie cordgrass is well suited to alley cropping and that, due to the competitive ability of poplars, productivity, C sequestration, and nutrient accrual may be greater in willow systems in the long term.

This chapter assesses the potential impact of SDG 8 on forests and forest-dependent people. The conceptual framework puts decent work and economic growth in the context of predominant development theories and paradigms (modernisation, growth, basic needs, sustainable development) shaping the agendas of governments, the private sector, civil society and investors. These stakeholders pursue different goals and interests, with uneven prioritisation of SDG 8 targets and mixed impacts on forests and livelihoods. At the country level, significant trade-offs are expected where growth policies and strategies focus on sectors competing with forestry for space and resources, such as agriculture, energy and mining. In these cases, decoupling economic growth from environmental degradation will be a major challenge. Combined, such policies and strategies lead to global trade-offs by exacerbating climate change. Synergies between SDG 8 and forests exist where growth is explicitly sought in the forest sector, focusing on tree plantations, timber and NTFPs from natural forests, eco-tourism and environmental services. Enhanced enabling environments help minimise trade-offs and maximise synergies by reconciling government policies and private sustainability standards, formalising community stewardship of tropical forests, addressing informality in forest product value chains and providing incentives for youth to become involved in forest-based economic activities.

Understanding the nature and degree of competition between trees and co-planted crops in agroforestry systems can inform management decisions, future species selection, and system design. We measured variation in herbaceous biomass yield, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), soil water potential, and residual soil NO3 in alley cropping systems consisting of prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata) or an 11-species native grass-forb-legume polyculture planted between rows of shrub willow (Salix purpurea L. ‘Fish Creek’) at two Minnesota sites. At Empire, biomass yield increased with distance from the tree row for both alley crops, as did PAR and NO3 availability. At Granada, no spatial pattern in crop yield was evident, despite reduced PAR and NO3 availability adjacent to tree rows. At both sites, patterns in soil water potential suggested that trees competed with crops for soil water within 2.4 m of tree rows, but had a facilitative effect on crop water use at 4.8 m. Alleys had differing cardinal orientations at the two sites, and light availability was lower in a north–south alley (Empire) than in west–east and northwest-southeast orientations (Granada). At Empire, mixed effects analysis indicated that competition for light and soil water were responsible for reductions in crop yield. For every 100 μmol m−2 s−1 increase in PAR, model estimated herbaceous crop yield increased by 623 kg DM ha−1. For every 20 kPa increase in average daily water potential, crop yield increased by 1038 kg DM ha−1. The relative impact of competition on biomass yield was similar for both crops, though prairie cordgrass had higher average yields at Empire. Similar alley systems should avoid north–south alley orientations to minimize competition for light.

Over 177,000 ha of woodlands in Minnesota, USA are grazed. In general, these woodlands are not managed specifically for timber or cattle benefits. This lack of management often leads to decreased timber value and reduced forage yields. Silvopasture is a potential alternative to overcome this lack of land management on Minnesota woodlots. However, very limited information are available about silvopasture use in Minnesota. This three-year study evaluated the potential for silvopasture in Minnesota by comparing the production of unmanaged woodland grazing, silvopastoral, and open pasture systems. Three farmers from Central Minnesota collaborated in this study to assess these grazing systems. Silvopasture paddocks were established when thinning and seeding were performed on woodland areas. We assessed forage production, forage quality, and livestock performance. Forage production was generally greater in silvopastoral systems compared with unmanaged woodland grazing systems, while forage quality was lower in open pasture systems, at least during the first year. Livestock performance was similar between the grazing systems. Results indicate that silvopasture has potential in Minnesota, but more research is required to develop specific management guidelines as well as to monitor silvopasture production systems for longer periods of time.

In order to reduce economic and national security risks, U.S. energy policy, in 2005 and 2007, mandated production of renewable biofuels. By 2010, the renewable biofuel industry was consuming approximately one-third of domestic corn and soybean production. To meet this growing demand, conservation and pastureland has been cultivated with corn and soybean, resulting in a reduction in ecosystem services. Perennial bioenergy crops (e.g., switchgrass) offer a more sustainable alternative. However, unlike annual crops, farmers and landowners have little experience with perennial bioenergy crop production. Uncertainty in production and prices may impact the supply of these novel crops into an emerging market. Using a contingent supply method, we show that agricultural landowners are willing to produce perennial bioenergy crops, given competitive returns, but only on a portion of their land.

ABSTRACT This study applies an integrated moral obligation model to examine the role of environmental and cultural values, and beliefs in the activation of landowner conservation norms. Data for this study were collected through a self-administered survey of riparian landowners in two Minnesota watersheds: Sand Creek and Vermillion River watersheds. Study findings suggest that collectivistic and biospheric–altruistic values form the bases for the activation of personal norms. Further, beliefs about local responsibility and ability to act influence personal norms to protect water resources. Findings suggest that landowners’ personal norms of water conservation are more likely to be activated by conservation strategies that appeal to biospheric–altruistic and collectivistic values, emphasize adverse consequences of water pollution, highlight water resource protection as a local responsibility, and provide the resources needed to protect water resources.