In the coming years, Ireland will continue to face an increasing demand for wood biomass as a renewable source of energy. This will result in strained supply/demand scenarios, which will call for new planning and logistics systems capable of optimizing the efficient use of the biomass resources. In this study, a linear programming tool was developed which includes moisture content (MC) as a driving factor for the cost optimisation of two supply chains that use short wood and whole trees from thinnings as material feedstock. The tool was designed and implemented to analyse the impact of moisture content and truck configurations (5-axle and 6-axle trucks) on supply chain costs and spatial distribution of the supply materials. The results indicate that the inclusion of wood chips from whole trees reduces the costs of wood energy supply in comparison with only producing wood chips from short wood to satisfy the demand, with 9.8% and 10.2% cost reduction when transported with 5-axle and 6-axle trucks, respectively. Constraining the MC of the wood chips delivered to the power plant increases both transport and overall supply chain costs, due, firstly to an increase in the haulage distance and secondly, to the number of counties providing the biomass material. In terms of truck configuration, the use of 6-axle trucks resulted in a 14.8% reduction in the number of truckloads and a 12.3% reduction in haulage costs in comparison to the use of 5-axle trucks across the MC scenarios analysed.

This study provides a state-of-the art overview of forest biomass harvesting technologies and supply chains used in North America, Europe and the Southern Hemisphere. The productivity and cost of selected efficient technologies is presented for each country with a brief description about the source of the biomass and harvesting method. Expert opinions on the most successful biomass operations have been presented briefly for each country. The main conclusions from various intentional studies are provided in addition to future requirements for research and development. This report can be a useful high level guide of technology and supply chain selection for industry and academics.

13 This GPSTRACK (acronym name) project has arisen as a result of a recommendation in 14 the FITG (Forest Industry Transport Group) Code of Practice for Timber Haulage. 15 “Encourage closer co-operation between consignors and hauliers to plan routes in a 16 manner which optimises the economic returns within a legal framework.” The project 17 involved the installation of Bluetree GPS asset tracking systems onto 2 timber haulage 18 trucks – an articulated Iveco Stralis 530 6*2 tractor unit with tri-axle road friendly air 19 suspension flat bed trailer with a design gross vehicle weight (d.g.v.w.) equal to 44 20 000kg. The Scania 124 (400) was a rigid (3 axle) + trailer (3 axle) + crane combination 21 with an equivalent d.g.v.w. of 44 000kg. This paper discusses the background and use of 22 real-time asset tracking devices in the context of timber haulage in Ireland. The results 23 analysis calculates the Horizontal root mean square (HRMS) 63% GPS accuracy of the 24 both truck’s travelled tracklog on both the public road network and the internal forest 25 road network over a period of 4 weeks and totalling approximately 15,000 GPS data 26 points. The HRMS accuracy values ranged from 2.55 m and 2.47 m for the public roads 27 while the forest road accuracy ranged from approximately 27 m to 41 m for Iveco and 28 Scania respectively.

The energy sector is the major contributor to GHG (greenhouse gas emissions) in Ireland. Under EU Renewable energy targets, Ireland must achieve contributions of 40%, 12% and 10% from renewables to electricity, heat and transport respectively by 2020, in addition to a 20% reduction in GHG emissions. Life cycle assessment methodology was used to carry out a comprehensive, holistic evaluation of biomass-to-energy systems in 2020 based on indigenous biomass supply chains optimised to reduce production and transportation GHG emissions. Impact categories assessed include; global warming, acidification, eutrophication potentials, and energy demand. Two biomass energy conversion technologies are considered; co-firing with peat, and biomass CHP (combined heat and power) systems. Biomass is allocated to each plant according to a supply optimisation model which ensures minimal GHG emissions. The study shows that while CHP systems produce lower environmental impacts than co-firing systems in isolation, determining overall environmental impacts requires analysis of the reference energy systems which are displaced. In addition, if the aims of these systems are to increase renewable energy penetration in line with the renewable electricity and renewable heat targets, the optimal scenario may not be the one which achieves the greatest environmental impact reductions.

a Room 3.06, School of Biosystems Engineering, University College Dublin Agriculture Building, UCD Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland, fionnuala.murphy@ucd.ie, +35317167317 *Corresponding Author b Room 3.25, School of Biosystems Engineering, University College Dublin Agriculture Building, UCD Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland, amanda.sosa@ucdconnect.ie, +35317167458 c Room 3.15, School of Agriculture & Food Science, University College Dublin Agriculture Building, UCD Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland, kevin.mcdonnell@ucd.ie, +35317167472 d Room 3.02b, School of Biosystems Engineering, University College Dublin Agriculture Building, UCD Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland, ger.devlin@ucd.ie, +35317167418 Abstract

The level of mobilisation of forest biomass supply chains varies widely among countries of the boreal and temperate biomes; it depends on the ability of forest biomass to be harvested, collected, processed and delivered to end-users and markets in a manner that is competitive with other energy sources, notably fossil fuels. Within each country, the mobilisation of forest biomass is affected by individuals, businesses and organisations who are interested in exploring economic opportunities, and who must operate within the constraints of policy, market and technological realities. There is also significant variation among countries in the share of the forest sector occupied by bioenergy and in the degree to which bioenergy is integrated (or not) within the basket of wood products, in terms of strategic and operational decision-making. This wide variability in conditions among countries represents a challenge when attempting to make meaningful, applicable recommendations for mobilising forest biomass, but also represents an opportunity. Cross-regional and international synergies among stakeholders and markets with different but complementary characteristics can facilitate technology transfer and improve efficiency along the entire supply chain; this could, in turn, result in large collective gains to global biomass mobilisation.

The timber industry in Ireland is an important producer of wood products for export and indigenous use, and supplies significant volumes of sawmill co-products as biomass for energy generation. This research expands existing knowledge on the environmental impacts of wood supply chains in Ireland by widening the analysis to incorporate the wood processing stage. The study determines and analyses energy and material inputs in the production of several timber products; sawnwood, wood chip, wood-based panel (WBP) boards and wood pellets, with an analysis of the resulting greenhouse gas emissions. Forestry operations and transportation make an important contribution to overall emissions. Electricity usage is responsible for the majority of emissions in sawmilling. Integration of combined heat and power (CHP) systems with sawmilling and pellet manufacture reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The penetration of renewables in the Irish national grid mix is forecast to increase by 2020 in line with EU renewable energy targets. Analysis shows that the forecast fall in the carbon intensity of the grid will have a positive effect on the reduction of GHG emissions from the wood processing supply chains. Wood energy products compare favourably with other sources of biomass energy and with fossil fuels.

The ever increasing energy demand along with fast depleting non-renewable fossil fuels and global climate change has led to a search for alternative energy resources. Waste plastic fuels have gained significant interest since they not only solve disposal problems but also provide an alternative energy resource. Combustion analysis of waste plastic derived fuels has shown conflicting findings with respect to fuel consumption and hazardous emissions. This is due to the conversion process employed (e.g., thermal vs. catalytic pyrolysis) and plastic type utilized resulting in a diverse range of fuel properties (i.e., viscosity and cetane Number). In this effort, a commercially-derived fuel (CynDiesel™) made from a blend of waste plastics through catalytic pyrolysis was tested as a blend with Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel (5%, 10%, 20%, and 100% by volume) to better understand the changes to pre-mixed and diffusion burn phases as a function of fuel properties. The significantly large cetane Number of this fuel combined with its relatively higher viscosity dramatically reduced the more efficient pre-mixed combustion phase; however, fuel consumption remained constant because of its greater energy content by mass. As a result, in-cylinder temperatures were found to be higher at high loads, but nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions went down with CynDiesel™ content. Furthermore, a theorized reduction in aromatic content and shift to saturated bonds with blend percentage resulted in lower hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions even though particulate matter (PM) emissions increased because of the growth of the diffusion burn phase. At low blend contents, the waste plastic derived fuel did not adversely influence engine performance; however, there were apparent differences in the emissions profile.

In Ireland, truck transport by road dominates and will remain the main transportation mode of biomass. Cost efficiency and flexibility of forest transport can be typically improved by optimising routes. It is important to know every process and attributes within the workflow of roundwood transport. This study aimed to analyse characteristics of timber trucking in Ireland, and to estimate the least-cost route for the distribution of biomass with the use of geographic information systems (GIS). Firstly, a tracking system that recorded the truck’s movements and fuel consumption was installed. A total of 152 trips were recorded, routes were chosen by the truck driver. The recorded information was used to analyse the distances and times travelled loaded and unloaded per road class, breaks, loading and unloading times as well as fuel consumption. Secondly, the routes taken by the truck where compared with routes created using Network Analyst (NA), an extension of ArcGIS. Four scenarios based on route selection criteria were selected: shortest distance (S1), shorted time (S2), and prioritising high-class roads with shortest distance (S3) and time (S4). Results from the analysis of the tracking system data showed that driving both loaded and unloaded occupied on average 69% of the driver’s working shift; with an average time driving loaded of 49%. The travel distance per trip varied from 112 km and 197 km, with the truck driver using mostly national and regional roads. An average 2% of the total distance and 11% of the total time was spent driving on forest roads. In general, the truck’s speed recorded on the different road classes was on average 30% lower than the legal maximum speed. The average fuel consumption was 0.64 L/km. In terms of the route comparison, the driving directions from the truck routes coincided with 77% of the directions of the routes based on shortest driving time (S2 and S4). All the routes chosen by the driver had 22% longer distance than the routes in S1 (shortest distance). The routes selected based on shortest distance (S1 and S3) had the longest travelling time, approximately 19% more than the ones taken by the truck and 30% more than S2 and S4. The average running cost for the truck was 0.83 €/km. Choosing the shortest distance routes (S1 and S3) not only implies reducing travelling costs but also a reduction of CO2 emissions by 12% in comparison to routes in S2 and S4. However, when selecting the routes, travel time can be a much more crucial parameter to analyse rather than distance in terms of transportation costs. Choosing the routes generated in scenario S2 over S1 implied an increase in distance by 12% but a decrease in time of 30%. Less driving time translates into better driving conditions across higher classes or roads; less wear and tear of trucks; and lesser fuel used. It also complies with local authorities preferences of having timber trucks move on higher road types in order to minimise the expenses associated with road maintenance.

In Ireland, timber and biomass haulage faces the challenge of transporting enough material within strict legal dimensions and gross vehicle weights restrictions for trucks and trailers. The objective of this study was to develop a method to control payload weight by knowing the moisture content of the wood. Weights, volumes, and moisture content were gathered from 100 truckloads of Sitka spruce pulpwood. Truck volume and weight utilization patterns were analyzed based on stacked volume, truck volume, and weights recorded from the weighbridge. Solid/bulk volume conversion factors for the truckloads were estimated indicating the truck’s solid volume capacity to be filled. Trucks were grouped into five conditions based on their configuration—volume capacity and legal maximum payload. A loaded volume fraction was estimated to assess the optimal volume capacity and stanchion height at which the trucks should be loaded. Results showed that 100% of the trucks presented volume underutilization, with a maximum of 27.5 m3 (only 39.85% volume capacity). In contrast, 67% of trucks were overweight while the remaining 33% were under the legal maximum weight. The average solid/bulk volume conversion factor was 0.66 ± 0.013 at 95% confidence level. Depending on the conditions, trucks can be filled to 100% of their volume capacity with wood at an MC from 29% to 55%. The minimum truck volume capacity utilization was 45%. This methodology can be used by truck hauliers, enabling them to determine in-forest the optimum volume and weight of wood to be transported by knowing the moisture content (MC), the wood specie, and using the height of the stanchions of the trailer as reference when loading the truck.

In the coming years, Ireland will continue to face an increasing demand for wood biomass as a renewable source of energy. This will result in strained supply/demand scenarios, which will call for new planning and logistics systems capable of optimizing the efficient use of the biomass resources. In this study, a linear programming tool was developed which includes moisture content (MC) as a driving factor for the cost optimisation of two supply chains that use short wood and whole trees from thinnings as material feedstock. The tool was designed and implemented to analyse the impact of moisture content and truck configurations (5-axle and 6-axle trucks) on supply chain costs and spatial distribution of the supply materials. The results indicate that the inclusion of wood chips from whole trees reduces the costs of wood energy supply in comparison with only producing wood chips from short wood to satisfy the demand, with 9.8% and 10.2% cost rethiction when transported with 5-axle and 6-axle trucks respectively. Constraining the MC of the wood chips delivered to the power plant increases both transport and overall supply chain costs, due, firstly to an increase in the haulage distance and secondly, to the number of counties providing the biomass material. In terms of truck configuration, the use of 6-axle trucks resulted in a 14.8% reduction in the number of truckloads and a 12.3% reduction in haulage costs in comparison to the use of 5-axle trucks across the MC scenarios analysed. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The combustion of peat for energy generation accounts for approximately 4.1% of Ireland’s overall greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with current levels of combustion resulting in the emission of 2.8 Mt of CO2 per annum. The aim of this research is to evaluate the life cycle environmental impacts of peat use for energy generation in Ireland, from peatland drainage and industrial extraction, to transportation, combustion, and subsequent after-use of the cutaway area, utilising Irish-specific emission factors. The environmental impacts considered are global warming potential, acidification potential, and eutrophication potential. In addition, the cumulative energy demand of the system is evaluated. Previous studies on the environmental impact of peat for energy in Ireland relied on default Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emission factors (EFs). This research utilises Irish-specific EFs and input data to reduce uncertainty associated with the use of default IPCC EFs, and finds that using default IPCC EFs overestimates the global warming potential when compared to Irish-specific EFs by approximately 2%. The greatest contribution to each of the environmental impacts considered arises from emissions generated during peat combustion, which accounts for approximately 95% of each of the environmental impact categories considered. Other stages of the life-cycle, such as impacts emanating from the peat extraction area, fossil fuel usage in harvesting and transportation machinery, and after-use of the cutaway area have much smaller effects on overall results. The transformation of cutaway peatlands to different after-use alternatives has the potential to mitigate some of the effects of peatland degradation and peat combustion.

The aim of this study was to analyse the supply of wood biomass (short wood) to the three peat power plants in Ireland and the impacts on the competing wood-based panel industries. The methodology includes the development of a spatial decision support tool based on LP (Linear Programming). It uses drying curves to assess the moisture content, weight and energy content of biomass during a two year period planning. Harvesting, chipping, storage and transportation costs are calculated based on the biomass moisture content. The model optimally allocates woodchips and logs from thinnings and clearfells. Results show that the planned maximum 30% co-firing rate at the three peat power station could be met with the forecasted short wood availability from both the private and public sector. The costs of supply increased not only with higher demands, but also with tighter constraints on the MC demanded by power plants. Spatial distribution and operational factors such as efficiency in transportation and truck loading showed to be sensitive to changes in MC. The analysis shows the benefits of managing the MC when optimising supply chains in order to deliver biomass to energy plants in a cost-effective manner.

Willow Salix sp. is currently cultivated as a short rotation forestry crop in Ireland as a source of biomass to contribute to renewable energy goals. The aim of this study is to evaluate the energy requirements and environmental impacts associated with willow (Salix sp.) cultivation, harvest, and transport using life cycle assessment (LCA). In this study, only emissions from the production of the willow chip are included, end-use emissions from combustion are not considered. In this LCA study, three impact categories are considered; acidification potential, eutrophication potential and global warming potential. In addition, the cumulative energy demand and energy ratio of the system are evaluated. The results identify three key processes in the production chain which contribute most to all impact categories considered; maintenance, harvest and transportation of the crop. Sensitivity analysis on the type of fertilizers used, harvesting technologies and transport distances highlights the effects of these management techniques on overall system performance. Replacement of synthetic fertilizer with biosolids results in a reduction in overall energy demand, but raises acidification potential, eutrophication potential and global warming potential. Rod harvesting compares unfavourably in comparison with direct chip harvesting in each of the impact categories considered due to the additional chipping step required. The results show that dedicated truck transport is preferable to tractor-trailer transport in terms of energy demand and environmental impacts. Finally, willow chip production compares favourably with coal provision in terms of energy ratio and global warming potential, while achieving a higher energy ratio than peat provision but also a higher global warming potential.

Two cable logging systems were reviewed to compare the efficiency of potential biomass extraction from remote forest sites in Ireland based on productive machine hour (PMH) and unit cost of operation (€/m3). Three operational scenarios (SC) were analysed where SC I was a three man crew operation (choker setter, the carriage operator and unhooking chokers). SC II was a variation of this with a two man crew operation. SC III was operating radio controlled chokers there was a two man crew (choker setter and carriage operator). The study aims to assess how operations in Ireland perform against previous known cable studies to determine whether the cost of timber extraction on remote forest sites inaccessible for mechanised felling, has a future given the increased demand for wood fibre in Ireland, both from the sawmilling industries and the wood for energy sector. The volume per PMH was recorded at 17.97 for SC I, 15.09 for SC II and 20.58 m3 for SC III. The difference in productivity versus SC III remote controlled chokers is 5.49 m3/PMH for SC II crew and 2.61 m3/PMH for SC I. The decrease in total volume extracted from SCs I and II versus SC III was recorded at 15.69 m3 (15%) and 32.97 m3 (36%) product respectively. In value terms, the unit cost (€/m3) varied from 6.29 (SC I) to 6.43 (SC II) to 4.57 (SC III). When looking at the production unit costs of normal wood energy supply chains in Ireland, the figures are similar ranging from 3.17 €/m3 to 8.01 €/m3. The value of the end product of course will always determine which market the eventually goes to but given that cable log wood fibre has been unthinned and unmaintained then the biomass sector may be an ever increasing demand point in the search for increased woody biomass given that the unit costs can be competitive with other wood energy supply chains.

Ireland's transport sector consumes just slightly less than one third of all energy in Ireland and is heavily dependent on oil imports, especially diesel. The European Union has set targets that are to be met by 2020, in order to guarantee a sustainable future for Europe and assure security of energy supply. There is an increase of biofuel usage in the transport sector, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and encourage indigenous production of renewable sources. Currently, Ireland has only two licensed suppliers of biodiesel. The Irish government has issued a number of policy support mechanisms, and while that has increased the use of biofuels in Ireland, it has not necessarily aided the domestic suppliers of biofuels. The aim of this paper is to detail the existing policies and support mechanisms in Ireland and to examine whether it is possible for Ireland to produce biofuels indigenously while meeting the 2020 targets and competing with the alternative conventional imports. Alternatives to the current supply scenario will be considered, including alternatives such as electric vehicles, recovered waste vegetable oils, and grass gasification for biomethane for natural gas vehicles.This article is categorized under: Bioenergy > Economics and Policy

The biofuels penetration rate target in Ireland for 2013 is 6% by volume. In 2012 the fuel blend reached 3%, with approximately 70 million litres of biodiesel and 56 million litres of ethanol blended with diesel and gasoline respectively. For January and February 2013, the blend rate had only reached 2.7%. The target of 10% by 2020 remains which equates to approximately 420 million litres. Achieving the biofuels target would require 345 ktoe by 2020 (14,400 TJ). Utilising the indigenous biofuels outlined in this paper leaves a shortfall of approximately 12,000 TJ or 350 million litres (achieving 17% of the 10% target) that must be either be imported or met by other renewables. 70% of indigenous production from one biodiesel plant is currently from TME and UCOME. If this remains for 2020 then only 30% remains equating to approximately 10 million litres indigenous production for a second biodiesel plant (30% of 21+13 million litres) which has planned capacity of 40 million litres (36,000 t). In terms of the EU biofuels sustainability criteria, up to 2017, a 35% GHG emissions reduction is required compared to fossil fuels. From 2017 onwards, a 50% GHG reduction is required for existing installations and a 60% reduction for new installations. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The demand for wood for energy production in Ireland is predicted to double from 1.5 million m(3) over bark (OB) in 2011 to 3 million m(3) OB by 2020. There is a large potential for additional biomass recovery for energetic purposes from both thinning forest stands and by harvesting of tops and branches, and stumps. This study builds on research within the wood-for-energy concept in Ireland by analysing the energy requirements and greenhouse gas emissions associated with thinning, residue bundling and stump removal for energy purposes. To date there have been no studies on harvesting of residues and stumps in terms of energy balances and greenhouse gas emissions across the life cycle in Ireland. The results of the analysis on wood energy supply chains highlights transport as the most energy and greenhouse gas emissions intensive step in the life cycle. This finding illustrates importance of localised production and use of forest biomass. Production of wood chip, and shredded bundles and stumps, compares favourably with both other sources of biomass in Ireland and fossil fuels. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.