Pitch, leveraging its advantages of abundant sources, low cost and high carbonization yield, is recognized as a premium precursor for the synthesis of hard carbon anode materials. However, the soft carbon derived from direct high-temperature carbonization of pitch exhibits high crystallinity, small interlayer spacing and scarce defect sites, leading to relatively low sodium storage capacity. In this study, we propose a sodium nitrate-assisted hydrothermal treatment combined with high-temperature carbonization strategy. During the thermal cross-linking process, sodium nitrate introduces oxygen-containing functional groups such as nitro and carbonyl groups, which effectively promote the formation of a three-dimensional crosslinking structure of pitch molecules, thereby inhibiting its graphitization tendency during high-temperature carbonization. Among the synthesized materials, the HPP-18-14 sample obtained through hydrothermal treatment at 180 degrees C exhibits the smallest carbon microcrystal size (5.14 nm), an optimal interlayer spacing (0.368 nm) and a relatively high specific surface area (39.2 m2 g-1). Electrochemical results reveal that this sample delivers the best sodium storage performance when employed as an anode: it demonstrates a high initial reversible capacity of 275 mAh g-1with a ICE of 67.2 % at a current density of 50 mA g-1, and maintains a reversible capacity of 166 mAh g-1 after 100 cycles even at a high current density of 1000 mA g-1. The enhanced capacity primarily originates from a notable improvement in the plateau region capacity, confirming that the tailored microstructure facilitates more efficient sodium-ion insertion. This work elucidates the critical role of hydrothermal temperature in regulating the structure of pitch-derived hard carbon and provides valuable theoretical insights and practical guidance for the design of high-performance hard carbon anode materials.

The structural stability and lithium-storage properties of Snx and SnxCoy (x + y ≤ 7) clusters intercalated between bilayer graphene were systematically investigated via first-principles calculations based on DFT. In the Snx/BLG systems, the Sn4 cluster was found to exhibit superior structural stability through the combined analysis of formation energy and second-order difference energy. The Sn-C bond length in Snx clusters increased from 2.54 Å to 2.85 Å, accompanied by a marked intensification of carbon-layer distortion. Upon the introduction of Co atoms, among the SnxCoy clusters, SnCo and Sn4Co clusters were observed to exhibit the lowest formation energies and highest structural stability, thereby effectively mitigating atomic distortion of the bilayer graphene (BLG) carbon layers. The second-order difference energy (Δ2E) provides an effective criterion for evaluating the structural stability of intercalated clusters, enabling the screening of energetically stable Snx and SnxCoy cluster models. Lithium-storage calculations for SnCo and Sn4Co cluster intercalated BLG systems demonstrate that Li atoms are preferentially adsorbed around SnxCoy clusters and transfer charge to graphene layers. With increasing Li content, per-Li charge transfer decreases and inter-Li repulsion strengthens, reducing stability at high Li concentrations. Furthermore, Co doping strengthens the electronic coupling between the clusters and the graphene layers. In the Sn4Co/BLG system, Li insertion not only reduces the degree of localization of the density of states near the Fermi level but also enhances the conductivity of the system.

Activation treatment effectively enriches hard carbon anodes' sodium storage sites and improves their capacity, but increases material defects and specific surface area, impairing initial Coulombic efficiency. Using coconut shells as raw material, this study modified activated coconut shell-based hard carbon via pitch carbon deposition combined with high-temperature carbonization, investigating carbon deposition's effect on hard carbon structure and the structure-electrochemical performance relationship. The research findings indicate that pitch deposition on the hard carbon surface effectively reduces surface pores and defects in coconut shell-derived carbon. As the deposition mass increases, both specific surface area and micropore quantity progressively decrease, leading to a significant improvement in the initial Coulombic efficiency of the electrode material. When the pitch carbon deposition content reaches 1.5 wt%, the obtained sample CYK1.5 exhibits an interlayer spacing of 0.370 nm and a specific surface area of 4.160 m2 g-1. CYK1.5 demonstrates an initial Coulombic efficiency of 80.6% and a reversible capacity of 354 mAh g-1 at a current density of 50 mA g-1. After 200 cycles at 1000 mA g-1, it maintains a discharge specific capacity of 243 mAh g-1, exhibiting excellent cycling stability and rate capability.

Against the backdrop of the global energy transition and the widespread adoption of electric vehicles, the development of fast-charging technology has become crucial for overcoming the performance limitations of lithium-ion batteries. While research on optimizing electrolytes and separators is relatively mature, the intrinsic kinetic limitations, interfacial instability, and risk of lithium plating of graphite anodes under high-rate conditions remain the core factors restricting fast-charging performance and safety. Consequently, this review focuses on the graphite material itself, systematically summarizing research progress on enhancing fast-charging performance through the construction of internal “fast Li+ transport channels.” The article begins with an in-depth analysis of the lithium storage mechanism in graphite and the fundamental causes of its kinetic limitations during fast charging. It then examines the mechanisms and efficacy of four major modification strategies, specifically interfacial optimization, structural modulation, electronic structure regulation, and synergistic multi-phase composite design, and based on this analysis, summarizes the essential characteristics required for constructing efficient, high-speed lithium-ion transport channels. Finally, addressing the limitations of current research, it outlines key challenges and future development prospects. This review aims to provide a theoretical basis and guidance for the material design and development of high-performance, fast-charging graphite anodes.

The incorporation of Sn-Co nanoalloys with carbon fibers represents a promising strategy for enhancing the lithium storage performance of composite electrode. Here, Sn-Co nanoalloy/carbon fiber composites are successfully synthesized via electrospinning followed by thermal treatment, using a polyacrylonitrile solution as the precursor. The influence of Sn-Co nanoalloy content-specifically, 0%, 12.5%, 25%, 37.5%, and 50%-on the structural characteristics and lithium storage performance of the composite anodes is systematically investigated. The results indicate that the Sn-Co nanoalloys, composed predominantly of the CoSn phase, are uniformly dispersed within the carbon fibers. With the gradual increase of Sn-Co alloy loading, the diameter of the composite fiber showed a change trend of first decreasing and then increasing during the preparation process, specifically decreasing from about 400 nm to about 200 nm, and then rising back to about 400 nm. The minimum fiber diameter of about 200 nm is achieved at a Sn-Co alloy proportion of 25%. Correspondingly, the capacity and cycle performance of SnCo/C-2 first increase and then decrease with the increase of alloy content. The material exhibits optimal capacity and cycling performance at 25% alloy content, demonstrating an initial discharge capacity of 828.7 mAh & sdot;g- 1, a first-charge capacity of 535.3 mAh & sdot;g- 1, and a reversible capacity of 323.0 mAh & sdot;g- 1 after 100 cycles at a current density of 0.1 A & sdot;g- 1. This research provides a theoretical basis for the development of high-capacity lithium-ion battery anode materials.

Biomass-derived hard carbon has garnered significant attention as anode material for sodium-ion batteries due to its abundant raw material sources, low cost, environmental sustainability and excellent sodium storage performance. However, the complex composition of biomass precursors makes it challenging to establish clear structure-property relationships between precursor components and the resulting hard carbon. In this study, we leverage sulfuric acid-mediated "hydrolysis-condensation" reactions to regulate the composition of bamboo precursors by varying acid concentrations, leading to increased lignin content, tunable cellulose crystallinity and reduced hemicellulose content. After carbonization, the optimized hard carbon exhibits a well-developed microstructure characterized by low defect density, suitable interlayer spacing and a high volume of micropores. These features originate from the substantial removal of hemicellulose, which exposes the precursor's porous framework, and the synergistic effect between graphitic-like microdomains derived from crystalline cellulose and the cross-linked carbon matrix formed from lignin. As a result, the optimized electrode delivers a high reversible capacity of 326.5 mAh g- 1 at 50 mA g- 1, outstanding cycling stability (93.3 % capacity retention after 300 cycles at 500 mA g- 1) and remarkable rate performance (162.3 mAh g- 1 at 5000 mA g- 1). This work innovatively bridges acid-mediated component regulation with microstructural engineering of biomass-derived hard carbons, providing a rational design strategy for high-performance sodium-ion battery anodes.

Lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) are promising next-generation energy storage systems due to their high energy density and low cost. However, their practical application is hindered by poor cycling stability and sluggish reaction kinetics, primarily caused by the polysulfide shuttle effect and the insulating nature of sulfur species. Developing efficient catalytic hosts that can immobilize lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) and accelerate their redox conversion is therefore essential. Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) possesses abundant active sites and good stability but suffers from low conductivity. Transition-metal (TM) atom incorporation can introduce catalytic activity and modulate local electronic structure, while heteroatom substitution (e.g., B, P, O, S) can further regulate charge distribution and enhance orbital hybridization. Herein, we hypothesize that synergistically coupling TM (Fe, Co, Ni) and heteroatom (B, P, O, S) dopants within g-C3N4 can simultaneously improve conductivity, strengthen LiPSs anchoring, and boost catalytic kinetics. To validate this, we constructed single-atom catalysts (X-TM-g-C3N4) via atomic substitution and TM embedding. AIMD and electronic analyses confirm high stability, strong TM-X-support coupling, and metallic transition. Among them, B-Ni-g-C3N4 exhibits the lowest Li2S4 -> Li2S2 energy barrier (-0.38 eV) and excellent Li2S decomposition activity, providing a rational design route for high-efficiency sulfur hosts in LSBs.

Leveraging the advantages of each component in composite materials has proven to be an effective strategy for enhancing the electrochemical performance of supercapacitors. In this work, a controlled synthesis of NiMoO4 & sdot;xH2O nanorod array precursors with unique morphologies was achieved on nickel foam via a hydro-thermal method. Subsequently, the NiMoO4 & sdot;xH2O nanorod arrays were selenized to obtain a multimetallic selenide Ni3Se2/NiSe/MoSe2 (MMS) multiphase composite. These tightly arranged nanorod arrays not only facilitated an increase in electroactive sites but also mitigated structural degradation during prolonged cycling. Critically, the interactions among the composite components significantly enhance the electrochemical performance, delivering a specific capacitance of 13.92 cm-2 at a current density of 5 cm-2. Notably, even when the current density is increased to 50 cm-2, the specific capacitance remains stable at 6.53 cm-2, with a capacitance retention of 94.3% after 10,000 cycles. Furthermore, the asymmetric supercapacitor assembled with a Ni3Se2/ NiSe/MoSe2 composite electrode material as the positive electrode and activated carbon as the negative electrode achieves a maximum energy density of 0.27 mWh cm-2 and a peak power density of 4 cm-2.

MXenes exhibit exceptional conductivity and tunable surface chemistry, making them an ideal candidate for cathode materials in lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs). Nevertheless, non-carbon/non-metal surface terminations (such as -O and -F) inevitably form during MXene synthesis. Their electronic properties and spatial configurations critically govern polysulfide anchoring and catalytic performance. Therefore, systematic exploration of how MXene surface terminations regulate the performance of LSBs is essential. To this end, this study employs density functional theory (DFT) calculations to compare how six terminations-chalcogenides (-O, -S, -Se) and halogens (-F, -Cl, -Br)-affect key properties of Ti2C MXenes, including bond lengths, adsorption energies, and catalytic behavior. Sulfur-terminated Ti2C (Ti2CS2) demonstrates superior adsorption and catalytic behavior, attributed to its shallow p-band center position and small d-p energy level difference, which collectively facilitate strong d-p orbital hybridization. Furthermore, the strength of van der Waals (vdW) interactions is co-regulated by the interplay of LiPSs electronic polarization and molecular polarity, enhancing dispersion forces and induced dipole interactions. Consequently, vdW interactions between anchoring materials (AMs) and Li2S8 are 2-3 times stronger than those between AMs and S8. This study proposes an "electronic-geometric" dual-parameter screening strategy for Ti2C MXenes, providing a universal design framework for high-performance LSBs.

Silicon-based materials have garnered significant attention as promising anode candidates for next-generation lithium-ion batteries due to their high theoretical specific capacity, low operating voltage, and abundant natural resources. However, the practical application of silicon anodes is severely hindered by their excessive volume expansion (> 300

Global annual shipments of lithium-ion batteries reached 1545.1 GW-hours (GWh) in 2024, representing a substantial increase. Notably, the energy-storage segment alone experienced a year-on-year growth of 64.9 %. Prior to dispatch, lithium-ion batteries must undergo self-discharge testing to ensure safety and reliability. In practice, identifying the approximately 2% of batteries exhibiting excessive self-discharge requires a prolonged resting period (10-30 days) to track self-discharge voltage drop (SDV-drop), which accounts for nearly two-thirds of the overall production cycle and severely limits manufacturing efficiency. Rapid and accurate prediction of self-discharge behavior has thus become a pressing engineering challenge. This study presents an artificial intelligence enabled framework that predicts a 28-day voltage drop using formation-stage data, thereby obviating the prolonged rest period. The approach integrates latent feature extraction from charge-discharge curves, unsupervised clustering, and transfer learning. Specifically, both comprehensive temporal and static features are automatically extracted from current, voltage, and capacity trajectories, along with scalar performance indicators. A hybrid K-means-t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) algorithm partitions the dataset into internally homogeneous clusters, enhancing intra-cluster consistency and inter-cluster separability. During transfer learning, maximum mean discrepancy aligns feature distributions between source and target domains, while a feature-label consistency constraint further mitigates domain shift and improves generalization. Comparative experiments demonstrate that the proposed model markedly outperforms state-of-the-art baselines in predicting SDV-drop. This framework thus provides a theoretical foundation and practical pathway for rapid self-discharge assessment, which enables significant reductions in production cycle time and improves manufacturing efficiency.

To address the low conductivity of sulfur and its discharge products, the substantial volume changes during cycling, and the shuttle effect in lithium‑sulfur batteries, this study employed low-cost, readily available cellulose powder as a precursor. Nitrogen-doped porous carbon (NUCA) was successfully synthesized via a process involving low-temperature dissolution, gelation, and stepwise calcination. Subsequently, a novel 1YNi/NUCA/S composite cathode material was constructed by uniformly loading α-Ni(OH)2 nanosheets doped with an appropriate amount of Y3+ ions onto the NUCA surface using a hydrothermal method. This material fully leverages the structural advantages of NUCA, namely its high conductivity and large specific surface area, along with the strong chemical adsorption and efficient catalytic capability of Y3+-doped α-Ni(OH)2 towards lithium polysulfides. The nitrogen-doped carbon framework not only constructs an efficient three-dimensional electron/ion transport pathway but also provides effective physical confinement for the active material and discharge products. Meanwhile, the introduction of Y3+ ions expands the interlayer spacing of α-Ni(OH)2, facilitating lithium-ion diffusion. It also modulates the electronic structure, inducing the formation of Ni2+/Ni3+ redox couples, which significantly enhances the catalytic kinetics for polysulfide conversion reactions. Benefiting from the synergistic optimization of composition and structure, the 1YNi/NUCA/S electrode maintains a specific capacity of 567.6 mAh/g after 800 cycles at a high rate of 4C, with a capacity retention rate of 82.2% and a low decay rate of only 0.022% per cycle. This work not only reveals the significant potential of Y3+ doping in enhancing the electrocatalytic performance of metal hydroxides but also provides a new perspective and an effective strategy for the multi-component cooperative design of high-performance lithium‑sulfur battery cathodes

Lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) are promising for next-generation energy storage due to their high energy density and environmental benefits. However, challenges like the "shuttle effect" and slow reaction kinetics limit their cycle life and performance. This study uses first-principles calculations to explore the sulfur redox reaction (SRR) in LSBs, addressing the shuttle effect and slow kinetics. By incorporating homonuclear and heteronuclear metal dimers (TM = Fe, Co, Ni) into nitrogen-doped graphene (NG) to form dual-atom catalysts (DACs), it examines how different TM atoms regulate the d-p hybridization and influence the sulfur anchoring and catalytic effects in LSBs cathodes. TM1-TM2@NG maintains stable interactions between TM-TM and TM-NG during hightemperature and long-duration simulations, with no significant structural changes or dissociation observed, indicating its strong stability for practical applications. Thanks to the d-p hybridization between the TM and S atoms, the binding strength between DACs and polysulfides (LiPSs) is significantly enhanced, while maintaining metallic bonding, and even showing good conductivity when anchoring Li2S. The coupling between the adsorption and synergistic sites in heteronuclear DACs leads to an upward shift in the d-band center, further improving the anchoring ability towards LiPSs. Especially in Co-Fe@NG, the strong hybridization between S-CoFe and the significant charge transfer between it and LiPSs reduce the free energy barrier of the Li2S2 to Li2S conversion process to 0.13 eV, while Co-Fe@NG also demonstrates excellent performance in promoting Li2S decomposition. Compared to the sulfur fixation performance and catalytic effect of conventional graphene cathode materials, Co-Fe@NG, with its suitable adsorption strength and bidirectional catalytic performance, is expected to be an outstanding sulfur carrier material for lithium-sulfur batteries.

The morphology of MnCo2O4 has a significant effect on the electrochemical performance. In this paper, urchinlike MnCo2O4 nanospheres was successfully fabricated by a simple hydrothermal process and post-annealing treatment. The effects of addition of surfactant (Hexadecy ltrimethyl ammonium bromide) on the crystal structure, surface morphology and electrochemical performance of MnCo2O4 have been investigated. The results show that all the synthesized manganese cobalt oxides are composed of cubic spinel MnCo2O4. The addition of surfactant leads to the change of the morphology of MnCo2O4 from nanoarray to urchin-like nanospheres and increases the specific surface area, which is beneficial to improve the electrochemical performance of the MnCo2O4 electrode. The electrochemical test reveals that the urchin-like MnCo2O4 nanospheres delivered a high specific capacity of 2019 F/g at a 1 A/g and 1144 F/g at 5 A/g, respectively. The specific capacity of MnCo2O4 electrode reaches 512 F/g at 10 A/g and retains 96 % of the initial capacity after 2000 cycles at 10 A/g, which maintains an extraordinary cycling performance. In addition, an asymmetric supercapacitor (MnCo2O4//AC) with urchin-like MnCo2O4 nanospheres as a cathode and activated carbon (AC) as an anode was also assembled. Impressively, the assembled MnCo2O4//AC asymmetric supercapacitor exhibits a high energy density of 69 Wh/ kg at a power density of 793 W/kg. The above research shows that the urchin-like MnCo2O4 nanospheres synthesized by adding surfactants are expected to be excellent high-performance energy storage electrode materials, which provides a new strategy for the synthesis of high-capacity nanoelectrode materials.

Finite element analysis (FEA) is widely used to analyze the physical and mechanical properties of materials. However, its mathematical precision makes it challenging to handle uncertainties and noise within the data, making it difficult to deduce system inputs from the outputs, which limits its applicability in inverse analysis. Moreover, FEA simulations for complex material problems often require substantial time and computational resources. Machine learning (ML), by learning input–output mappings from training data, can effectively address inverse problems with non-unique solutions. Additionally, it can reduce computational time and costs. Therefore, the integration of ML with FEA can complement their respective strengths and better address real-world challenges in materials engineering. This review systematically explores the applications of ML combined with FEA in areas such as parameter inversion, computational process acceleration and optimization, material property prediction, and material design and optimization. Finally, future directions for the development of the integration of ML and FEA are discussed.

Dual-atom catalysts (DACs) have shown remarkable electrochemical performance as cathode materials in lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs), and carbon-nitrogen compounds are highly effective support materials for these catalysts. In previous studies, catalytic atoms were often introduced into the cavities of carbon-nitrogen compounds, but this structure generally lacked stability. This work employs first-principles calculations to investigate the application potential of DACs (TM-TM@g-C3N4) supported on monolayer g-C3N4 through atomic substitution in LSBs. Molecular dynamics simulations and electronic structure analyses indicate that TM-TM@g-C3N4 structures possess good structural stability and exhibit enhanced conductivity. Adsorption studies reveal that, due to the d-electron configuration of heteronuclear dual atoms, the constructed DACs display excellent anchoring performance for LiPSs (with adsorption energies ranging from -1.02 to -5.67eV). Notably, the strong hybridization of Mn and Co d-orbitals in Mn-Co@g-C3N4 at the Fermi level enhances its catalytic performance in the sulfur reduction reaction kinetics, particularly crossing the Fermi level. The reduction of Li2S2 to Li2S, the rate-limiting step, shows a low free energy barrier (-0.09eV). Additionally, weakened Li-S bonds facilitate the decomposition of Li2S on Mn-Co@g-C3N4 (0.77eV). With its suitable adsorption energy and superior catalytic activity in both directions, Mn-Co@g-C3N4 emerges as an optimal support material with strong application potential. This work paves the way for developing high-activity host materials for LiPSs and provides valuable insights for designing homonuclear and heteronuclear DACs in LSBs.

The core-shell structure has a significant impact on the performance improvement of electrode materials of supercapacitors. In this paper, MnCo2O4@MnCo2S4 core-shell nanoflower structures was successfully fabricated on nickel foam (NF) substrates via hydrothermal and thermal treatment methods. The results show that the sulfurization treatment caused the change in the morphology of the material. After partial sulfurization treatment, the morphology of the material changed from urch-like nanospheres to a core-shell nanoflower structure. Electrochemical test results show that MnCo2O4@MnCo2S4 nanoflower material delivers a high specific capacity of 2461.92F & sdot;g-1 at 1 A & sdot;g-1 and a capacity of 1732.04F & sdot;g-1 at 10 A & sdot;g-1, exhibiting an excellent rate capability. After 2000 cycles at 10 A & sdot;g-1, MnCo2O4@MnCo2S4 nanoflower material maintains the initial discharge capacity of 89 %, indicating a good structural stability. The enhancement of the electrochemical performance of the MnCo2O4@MnCo2S4 core-shell nanoflower material is attributed to the improved conductivity of the material, which is confirmed by DFT calculations. The density of states (DOS) calculations indicate that the oxide (MnCo2O4) behaves as a semiconductor with a bandgap of approximately 0.14 eV, while the MnCo2S4 obtained by sulfurization treatment exhibits metallic properties. In addition, an MnCo2O4@MnCo2S4//AC asymmetric supercapacitor (ASC) device was also assembled. Impressively, the device possesses a mass specific capacity of 363.54F & sdot;g-1 at 1 A & sdot;g-1 and exhibits a capacity retention of 83.40 % after 5000 cycling, showing excellent performance. An assembled device shows an energy density of 125.70 W h & sdot;kg-1 at power density of 788.91 W & sdot;kg-1. A new strategy is proposed to effectively improve the electrochemical performance of metal oxides by controlling the degree of sulfurization. The synthesized core-shell nanoflower MnCo2O4@MnCo2S4 electrode material through this strategy demonstrates significant potential in supercapacitor applications.

Silicon has been widely recognized as one of the most attractive anode candidates in the next generation of lithium-ion batteries due to its excellent theoretical specific capacity, low operating voltage, and extensive sources. Herein, one-dimensional tubular silicon and two-dimensional lamellar silicon with porous structures have been successfully synthesized from low-cost and resource-rich clay minerals (halloysite, kaolin, chlorite and dickite) as raw materials through the low-temperature aluminothermic molten salt reduction process. The results show that the morphology and microstructure of nanostructured silicon depend largely on the morphology and microstructure of its precursor, i.e., one-dimensional tubular silicon from halloysite, two-dimensional lamellar silicon from kaolin, chlorite and dickite. When used as an anode for lithium-ion batteries, one-dimensional tubular Si derived from natural halloysite exhibits superior electrochemical performance, with an initial discharge capacity of 2675 mAh g-1 and an initial coulombic efficiency of 86 %. It yields a high reversible capacity of 1418 mAh g-1 at 0.2 A g-1 after 400 cycles with a capacity retention of 53 %. The voltage and Si-Li chemical bond state of elemental silicon during charge and discharge were studied through molecular dynamics and first-principles calculations. It was found that electrons from Li atoms transferred to nearby Si atoms, and with the increase of Li content, the ionic bond properties of Si-Li bonds increased, resulting in a decrease in Young's modulus and an increase in tensile fracture. This work provides a facile and cost-effective approach for the preparation of nanostructured silicon from natural clay minerals as high-performance silicon anode materials.

A recrystallized g-C3N3 (PGCN)/CNT composite material was prepared using g-C3N3 (GCN) and CNTs as raw materials via the dissolution-precipitation method. By optimizing the mass ratio of PGCN to CNTs, it was determined that a 1:1 ratio provided the best electrochemical performance for Li-S batteries. The interconnected CNTs network serves as a physical adsorbent for soluble lithium polysulfides (LiPSs), while the abundant exposed pyridinic nitrogen sites on the PGCN nanosheets enable effective chemical adsorption of LiPSs. The PGCNT11/S electrode exhibited an initial discharge specific capacity of 803.4 mAh g- 1 at a current density of 1C and a discharge specific capacity of 605.0 mAh g- 1 after 500 cycles, with a capacity retention of 75.3 % and a capacity decay rate of 0.049 % per cycle, demonstrating excellent long-term cycling performance.