Modern bed bugs are resistant to multiple insecticide classes, particularly the pyrethroids. The efficacy of pyrethroid-impregnated mattress liners marketed for bed bug management has been variable. This study evaluated the efficacy of a permethrin-impregnated mattress liner, ActiveGuard, against 24 bed bug strains, consisting of both Cimex hemipterus (F.) and Cimex lectularius L. A 'mat assay', employing an allethrin-impregnated mat, was used to establish the pyrethroid resistance profile of all strains. Three experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of ActiveGuard exposure on bed bug knockdown: 1) exposing the bed bugs continuously on the liner for up to 24 d, 2) holding the bed bugs on the liner for either 4 or 6 h, and 3) placing a noninsecticide treated fabric above the liner with the bed bugs held continuously on top. Our results indicated that all modern strains (collected within the last 15 years during the current resurgence) were pyrethroid-resistant, although the magnitude of resistance was highly variable between strains. In the continuous exposure study, an incomplete knockdown was recorded for most modern bed bug strains, with some having no knockdown even up to 7 d of constant exposure. In the 4 or 6 h exposure study, the level of knockdown was reduced even further, and very few bed bugs were knocked down in the double fabric study. The results of this study indicate that pyrethroid-impregnated mattress liners are not likely to be effective in the management of most modern bed bug infestations involving either C. hemipterus or C. lectularius.

The presence of fecal spots has often been used to verify the existence of a bed bug (Cimex lectularius) infestation. However, no research has been conducted to determine how much fecal material that a bed bug population produces over time. In this study, the number of fecal spots that each nymphal life stage was capable of producing after a bloodmeal was quantified. Adult fecal spots were also quantified to determine if there was consistent production between feedings. During this study, it was discovered that bed bugs produced visible fecal spots and clear spots that were only visible under ultraviolet light. Therefore, three types of fecal spots were quantified: dark feces, light feces, and clear spots. Clear spots were produced in greater amounts (38.5-55.5%) than either dark spots (27.3-40.7%) or light spots (17.3-21.9%). For example, 5th instar bed bugs were thought to produce an average of 21 spots (dark and light) after a single bloodmeal. However, using the ultraviolet light, it was found that the 5th instars actually produced an average of 44.7 spots. Using the total fecal spot data collected during this study, researchers could project contamination potential for an infestation starting with a single gravid female over 30, 60, and 90 d. In addition, the amount of area covered by these spots was projected to be over 12 m2 in just 3 mo, which could greatly reduce the environmental and aesthetic quality of a home.

This study investigated the efficacy of using Vikane gas fumigant (sulfuryl fluoride) at the 1.9x dosage rate for eliminating bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L.) in two challenging infestation situations: personal vehicles, and confined spaces densely packed with personal belongings. The vehicles used in this study were large minivans with seating that folded into the floor. The confined spaces were cargo trailers filled to 85% capacity with books, furniture, and other household items. Each van and trailer was equipped with similar to 90 sentinel bed bugs consisting of three groups of 9-11 bed bug eggs, 10 nymphs, and 10 adults. The Vikane Fumiguide calculator was used to determine the target dosage (g-h/m3) to apply in each replicate (e.g., one van or trailer). Sulfuryl fluoride concentrations were measured throughout the fumigation process using a Spectros SF-ReportIR. Concentration readings were input into the Fumiguide to determine when the accumulated dosage (g-h/m(3)) was achieved, and when aeration should be initiated. After aeration was complete, the sentinel bed bugs were removed from the replicates and bed bug nymph and adult mortality was recorded. Bed bug eggs were monitored for 23 d to determine latent mortality. Fumigated bed bug mortality for each replication was 100% regardless of life stage. Latent mortality was observed in a single bed bug egg, but the first instar never fully eclosed. This study determined that fumigation with sulfuryl fluoride at the 1.9x dosage factor is an effective method for eliminating resistant bed bugs from vehicles and personal belongings in densely packed situations.

Over the last several decades, low-income public housing facilities have been known to be infested with particularly large German cockroach populations. These populations persist even though the housing pest control contracts often require, and pay for, IPM practices to be used in their facilities. When Virginia Tech researchers began reviewing public housing contracts in Virginia and North Carolina, it was easy to see why these ‘IPM programs’ were not successful. Many of these ‘low-bidder’ contracts do not allow the technician enough time in each apartment to assess the size of the pest population. In addition, these pest management contracts did not require German cockroach population monitoring, even though all IPM programs are based on assessments of the pest population. There was a clear need for an effective, easy to apply cockroach management program in U.S. public housing authorities. This study determined the long-term efficacy of an Assessment-based Pest Management (APM) program for German cockroach control in U.S. public housing facilities. Specifically, we evaluated an APM program where the residents were not asked to clean or prepare for treatment, and where overnight cockroach trap counts were used to determine the volume of gel bait that would be applied. The APM baiting program was conducted for 15 mo in three housing authorities. In all three housing authorities, cockroach populations in test units were typically reduced by >90%. German cockroach infestations were even eliminated from 49 of the 65 (75%) test units during this study.

Chapter 3 The Bed Bug Resurgence in North America Dini M. Miller, Dini M. MillerSearch for more papers by this author Dini M. Miller, Dini M. MillerSearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Stephen L. Doggett, Stephen L. Doggett NSW Health Pathology, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, AustraliaSearch for more papers by this authorDini M. Miller, Dini M. Miller Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USASearch for more papers by this authorChow-Yang Lee, Chow-Yang Lee School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, MalaysiaSearch for more papers by this author First published: 23 February 2018 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171539.ch3Citations: 4 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShareShare a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Summary Like the rest of the modern world, the USA and Canada have a history of bed bug infestations. Because of the temperate climate in the North American latitudes, infestations have been almost exclusively limited to the Common bed bug (Cimex lectularius L.). A revolution in bed bug remediation occurred with the use of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). Bed bug populations in North America appear to have developed resistance to DDT within a few years of its initial use. In the USA, the official "first responder" to the bed bug resurgence was the pest management industry. In 2004, the National Pest Management Association (NPMA) organized a series of bed bug workshops for members and other participants across the nation. The history of the C. lectularius in Canada has been very similar to that of the USA. In Canada, the Canadian Pest Management Association and the local provincial pest management associations were also working on bed bug education. Citing Literature Advances in the Biology and Management of Modern Bed Bugs RelatedInformation

After a short disappearance in the 2nd half of 1900s, bed bugs returned in the 1990s then quickly spread across the U.S. and 20 other developed countries (Potter, M.F. Am. Entomol. 2011, 57, 14-25). Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius Linnaeus) have been one of the most adaptable, resilient, and difficult urban pests to control (Potter. M.F. et al. NPMA. 2015; NPMA 2018) because they only require blood and physical substrates for harborage (Usinger, R.L. Monograph of Cimicade (Hemiptera, Heteroptera); 1966), spread infestation by quickly hitch-hiking with us and our belongings (Potter, M.F. Am. Entomol. 2011, 57, 14-25), and have developed high insecticide resistance (Romero, A. et al. PCT 2007, 35, 42-50), often with multiple mechanisms of resistance within a single population (Zhu, F. et al. Sci. Rep. 2013, 3, 1456; Adelman Z.N. et al. Plos One. 2011, 6, e26228). Previous evidence suggests thickening of the exocuticle is positively correlated to levels of insecticide resistance in a single resistant population (Lilly, D.G. et al. Plos One. 2016, 11, e0153302). However, the evaluation of cuticle thickness in multiple bed bug populations has not been conducted to date. In this study, we measured the cuticular thickness of bed bugs across seven bed bug populations including several field-collected insecticide-resistant and susceptible strains collected from various geographical locations using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). We found there were population differences, but we did not find a strong positive correlations with the level of pyrethroids insecticide resistance. We believe cuticle thickening might be a secondary mechanisms of insecticide resistance in some populations but not necessarily all, which contributes to the reduced cuticular penetration of insecticides. Further cuticular analysis such as wax-layer components and cuticular proteins profiling and, investigation of the metal content, cuticular component and cross-linkage densities are needed. Integrated pest management (IPM) and biorational bed bug control methods should incorporate such findings in order to effectively control and reduce bed bug infestations.

Since the beginning of the modern bed bug resurgence, research-based information regarding bed bug biology, behavior, and control has grown exponentially in an attempt to meet the demand for public education. This chapter describes some of the education strategies that have emerged in the USA since the year 2000. Cooper of Cooper Pest Solutions, Lawrenceville, New Jersey Cooper began speaking on bed bugs locally in 2003 to pest management professionals (PMPs) in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and gave the first ever presentation at a national US conference on the modern bed bug resurgence. To identify the target audience for bed bug education, the New York City (NYC) Environmental and Health Portal uses a survey tool to gather data about city residents' health. The US National Pest Management Association's (NPMA's) “Bed Bug Awareness Week” has sought to provide science-based content to popular media outlets with the hope that the information would be widely distributed.

Standard toxicity evaluations of insecticides against insect pests are primarily conducted on adult insects. Evaluations are based on a dose-response or concentration-response curve, where mortality increases as the dose or concentration of an insecticide is increased. Standard lethal concentration (LC50) and lethal dose (LD50) tests that result in 50% mortality of a test population can be challenging for evaluating toxicity of insecticides against non-adult insect life stages, such as eggs and early instar or nymphal stages. However, this information is essential for understanding insecticide efficacy in all bed bug life stages, which affects control and treatment efforts. This protocol uses a standard dipping bioassay modified for bed bug eggs and a contact insecticidal assay for treating nymphal first instars. These assays produce a concentration-response curve to further quantify LC50 values for insecticide evaluations.

Few studies have evaluated water loss and respiratory activity of insect eggs, particularly insects that are known to live within indoor environments. The present study quantifies water loss and respiratory activity for the eggs of a re-emerging indoor pest of human environments Cimex lectularius (L.). Water loss is measured gravimetrically and calculated as a function of chorion permeability. For these studies, bed bug eggs are placed at 0% relative humidity and repeatedly weighed over 48h. Temperature effects and bed bug strain differences on the standard metabolic rate (SMR) and respiratory quotient are measured using closed system respirometry. The SMR (Vo2; mLg(-1)h(-1)) is measured for two field strain bed bugs and compared with a laboratory strain held at one temperature (25 degrees C). The standard metabolic rate is measured for Harlan (laboratory) strain bed bug eggs at six different temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 39 degrees C). Total water loss is not significantly different between all three strains. However, water loss across the chorion (chorion permeability) is significantly different between the Harlan laboratory strain and the two field collected strains. Standard metabolic rates for Harlan (laboratory) strain bed bug eggs increase with temperatures from 15 to 35 degrees C but decline at 39 degrees C. Overall, the Harlan bed bug eggs have the largest standard metabolic rates (0.18 +/- 0.05mLg(-1)h(-1)) compared with the Epic Center strain eggs (0.14 +/- 0.03mLg(-1)h(-1)) and Richmond strain eggs (0.16 +/- 0.04mLg(-1)h(-1)), although this difference is not significant.

Two strains of the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., eggs and first instars collected from pyrethroid-resistant adults were evaluated for insecticide resistance and compared to a susceptible strain. Dose-response bioassays were conducted using two insecticide formulations (Temprid: imidacloprid/β-cyfluthrin, and Transport: acetamiprid/ bifenthrin). The lethal concentration (LC50) for the two resistant egg strains exposed to imidacloprid/β-cyfluthrin ranged from 3 to 5-fold higher than susceptible strain eggs. Resistant strain eggs dipped into formulations of acetamiprid/bifenthrin had LC50 values which were significantly greater (39 to 1,080-fold) than susceptible strain eggs. Similar to eggs, resistant strain first instars exposed to residual applications of imidacloprid/β-cyfluthrin had LC50 values ranging from 121 to 493-fold greater than susceptible strain first instars. When resistant strain first instars were treated with acetamiprid/bifenthrin, they had LC50 values that were 99 to >1,900-fold greater than susceptible strain first instars. To determine differences between egg and first instar resistance, stage resistance ratios (SRR) were compared between the two stages. There was little difference between the egg and first instar stages, indicated by small SRR values ranging from 1.1 to 10.0. This study suggests that insecticide resistance is expressed early during bed bug development.

Field evaluations were conducted to determine efficacy, residual activity, and knockdown potential for fire ant control products. Broadcast granular products (Advion, 0.045% indoxacarb; and Top Choice Insecticide, 0.0143% fipronil) were individually evaluated, and compared with a combination of two products applied together, and with individual mound applications of Maxforce Fire Ant Killer Bait (1.0% hydramethylnon). After application, the greatest percent reductions (90 days) were observed in the Advion/Top Choice combination plots (100.0%), followed by Top Choice alone (96.4%). Advion and MaxForce produced significantly lower foraging reductions at 90 days (61.2% and 27.5% respectively). At the conclusion of the test (day 360), significantly fewer ants were collected in the Advion (777.7), Top Choice (972.8), and combination plots (596.2) than in the control plots (1257.8) (df 13, F = 8.3, P < 0.05). The mean number of ants collected from MaxForce treatment plots was not significantly different from controls (P > 0.05). Overall, the efficacy and residual studies suggested that the Advion/Top Choice combination produced both the most rapid reduction in ant foraging and the longest lasting control (90%) at 300 days. When evaluating time to knockdown of foraging populations, the Advion/Top Choice combination also provided the most complete and rapid results by day 7, reducing foraging by 100%. While other products also performed well (75.6 - 95.9% reductions), both the MaxForce and Advion plots had significant increases in foraging at 30-90 days. Overall, foraging knockdown was the most complete in the Avion/Top Choice combination plots at 90 days.

In 2012, a proactive bed bug ( Cimex lectularius L.) suppression program was implemented in a 121-unit low-income housing facility in Harrisonburg, VA. The program consisted of common minimally toxic and inexpensive integrated bed bug management methods including a novel strategy for applying a perimeter barrier of diatomaceous earth in apartment units. The program was evaluated over the course of 1 yr, after which, mean treatment time, amount of product used, and application cost were calculated for each unit. In 2013, both the number of initial infestations and the costs associated with bed bug treatments were reduced. The apartment residents' perceptions of the bed bug suppression program were assessed using face-to-face surveys, in which many expressed relief that proactive bed bug management measures had been put in place.

One of the most effective ways to describe the successional gradient of an environment is by using measures of biodiversity. We investigated the biodiversity of ant communities (known tramp/structure invaders) in an environment undergoing urban succession to characterize how ant communities changed along a disturbance gradient. Ant community dynamics were examined within three Puerto Rican housing developments of different ages. Within each development, we assessed the ant community using biodiversity measures of richness, abundance, diversity and evenness. We also studied changes in biodiversity within each development over time as well as how biodiversity related to food preferences within the ant communities. In general, the biodiversity measures increased as the age of the housing development increased. Monthly changes in biodiversity indicated that month was a better predictor of biodiversity in the most recently disturbed development, while the biodiversity in the older developments was less predictable from month to month. The biodiversity measures also suggested that the ant community in the youngest development was comprised mostly of generalist feeders. However, the older sites' ant species appeared to have more specific feeding preferences. Based on the biodiversity measures of these ant communities, our findings suggest that the housing developments of different ages represented advancing stages of secondary succession. Furthermore, this study indicated that the succession of ant species occurs rapidly (< 10 years) in urban environments, resulting in a relatively diverse ant community.