The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA 2003) framework was applied to provide a holistic assessment and comparison of ecosystem services delivery from 11 environmental change network (ECN) sites, following a workshop of ECN site managers. A list of common variables was agreed to represent the high level categories defined by the MA. The resultant 73 variables, either direct ecosystem services or proxies, were divided into two subsets (readily accessible biogeographical data from all sites and additional site specific data). Similarity analysis of the biogeographical data indicated four site clusters: land with at least 50% forest cover, productive livestock farmland, uplands and a lowland grass/arable group. The first three clusters were also evident for both the additional data and for the larger combined dataset. The lowland grass/arable sites were a 'mixed use' cluster that was not apparent in the analysis of the additional or combined datasets indicating a mismatch between particular ecosystem services and specific landscapes/habitats. Procrustes analysis of the biogeographical data and the combined dataset suggested that the primary differences between datasets were due to variables associated with local management decisions which prevented harvesting of provisioning services or denied public access to the site. Drawing on comparable data from some of the most intensively researched and monitored ecosystems in the UK, this study demonstrates the challenges and limitations involved in attempting holistic assessments of ecosystem services at the site and inter-site level and highlights the importance of both local expert knowledge and consistent scientific measurement in contributing to the process. Copyright (C) 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This review identifies the major trends in physical, chemical and biological data between 1993 and 2007 at the 12 terrestrial sites in the United Kingdom Environmental Change Network (ECN) and assesses the effectiveness of the programme.Temperature and precipitation increased and sulphur (S) deposition decreased across the network. There were also significant local trends in nitrogen (N) deposition. The decreasing S deposition was associated with increasing pH of rainfall and soils and there was widespread evidence of soil pH showing recovery from acidification.Warm-adapted butterfly species tended to increase at northern, upland sites, consistent with an effect of increasing temperatures. In contrast, carabid beetle species associated with cooler northern and upland areas showed declining populations. The increasing trend in precipitation may account for a decline in ruderal plant species in the lowlands, reversing an increase associated with drought in the early part of the time series.There was no general shift in the composition of plant communities which might reflect rising soil pH. This may reflect the slow dynamics of plant community processes or a distinction between pH trends at the surface and lower soil horizons.The ECN is effective in detecting trends in a range of different variables at contrasting sites. Its strength is the ability to monitor causes and consequences of environmental change in the same programme, improving the ability to attribute causes of change, which is essential to developing conservation policy and management in the 21st century. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Measuring farmland biodiversity is time-consuming and costly. Operational data from the Farm Scale Evaluation of genetically modified crops project were collated to identify the financial and time costs of each of the 14 protocols used. A subset of 113 of the 266 experimental sites was used. The mean overall cost per site was 19 pound 453 ( pound of 2002). Laboratory time was almost 2.5 times that in the field. The most costly protocol was soil surface invertebrates because it required species level identification. The 'bees and butterflies' protocol at 418 pound per site was particularly cost-effective. The six vegetation protocols accounted for 65% and the six arthropod protocols accounted for 29% of the total costs. The recommended reduction from 12 to 3 transects would have saved 1356 pound per site, 6% of total budget. A minimalist approach using the single-season seedbank protocol would cost 3437 pound per site. The effect of geographical spread of sites on cost was small because of clustering of sites and the large number of protocols. Careful selection of ecological indicators can save considerable resources.

The use of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops influences the abundance of weeds and some invertebrate groups because the associated herbicide regime contrasts with that of conventional systems. However, it is not clear to what extent these effects might be cumulative; should GMHT crops be grown continuously. In northern Europe, in the near future, this situation is most likely to apply to maize crops. Here, we consider the effects of continuous GMHT maize cropping on plant and invertebrate taxa using a split-field experiment. Half of each field was managed using GMHT and the other half with a conventional variety, with the treatments retained for two seasons. The treatment effects were broadly consistent with those found in the larger sample of non-continuous maize sites within the Farm Scale Evaluations. There was little evidence of effects being significantly more pronounced in the second year; any cumulative differences in above-ground biodiversity between GMHT and conventional cropping were too variable to be readily detected.

The Farm Scale Evaluations (FSEs) showed that genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) cropping systems could influence farmland biodiversity because of their effects on weed biomass and seed production. Recently published results for winter oilseed rape showed that a switch to GMHT crops significantly affected weed seedbanks for at least 2 years after the crops were sown, potentially causing longer-term effects on other taxa. Here, we seek evidence for similar medium-term effects on weed seedbanks following spring-sown GMHT crops, using newly available data from the FSEs.Weed seedbanks following GMHT maize were significantly higher than following conventional varieties for both the first and second years, while by contrast, seedbanks following GMHT spring oilseed rape were significantly lower over this period. Seedbanks following GMHT beet were smaller than following conventional crops in the first year after the crops had been sown, but this difference was much reduced by the second year for reasons that are not clear. These new data provide important empirical evidence for longer-term effects of GMHT cropping on farmland biodiversity.

We evaluated the effects of the herbicide management associated with genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) winter oilseed rape (WOSR) on weed and invertebrate abundance and diversity by testing the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the effects of herbicide management of GMHT WOSR and that of comparable conventional varieties. For total weeds there were few treatment differences between GMHT and conventional cropping, but large and opposite treatment effects were observed for dicots and monocots. In the GMHT treatment, there were fewer dicots and more monocots than in conventional crops. At harvest, dicot biomass and seed rain in the GMHT treatment were one-third of that in the conventional, while monocot biomass was threefold greater and monocot seed rain almost fivefold greater in the GMHT treatment than in the conventional. These differential effects persisted into the following two years of the rotation. Bees and butterflies that forage and select for dicot weeds were less abundant in GMHT WOSR management in July. Year totals for Collembola were greater under GMHT management. There were few other treatment effects on invertebrates, despite the marked effects of herbicide management on the weeds.

Responses of key invertebrates within Farm Scale Evaluations (FSEs) of maize reflected advantageous effects for weeds under genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) management. Triazine herbicides constitute the main weed control in current conventional systems, but will be withdrawn under future EU guidelines. Here, we reappraise FSE data to predict effects of this withdrawal on invertebrate biodiversity under alternative management scenarios. Invertebrate indicators showed remarkably consistent and sensitive responses to weed abundance. Their numbers were consistently reduced by atrazine used prior to seedling emergence, but at reduced levels compared to similar observations for weeds. Large treatment effects were, therefore, maintained for invertebrates when comparing other conventional herbicide treatments with GMHT, despite reduced differences in weed abundance. In particular, benefits of GMHT remained under comparisons with best estimates of future conventional management without triazines. Pitfall trapped Collembola, seed-feeding carabids and a linyphiid spider followed closely trends for weeds and may, therefore, prove useful for modelling wider biodiversity effects of herbicides. Weaker responses to triazines applied later in the season, at times closer to the activity and capture of invertebrates, suggest an absence of substantial direct effects. Contrary responses for some suction-sampled Collembola and the carabid Loricera pilicornis were probably caused by a direct deleterious effect of triazines.

T his paper examines the use of mantra in two separate but parallel traditions: çaivism and çäktism. “Çaivism” refers to traditions that follow the Hindu god Siva, while “Çaivism” refers to traditions that worship Sakti (lit. power), the goddess consort of the Lord Siva. Both of these systems reside within a metacategory known as Hindu tantrism. Hindu Tantrism itself is a refinement of and a response to the ideas advanced by upaniñadic and yogic philosophy. The upaniñadic philosophy is historically paralleled to Buddhism in what is known as India’s axial age from 600 to 100 B.C.E. Yogic (lit. to yoke or control) philosophy is a tradition which takes the intellectual advances of the upaniñads and layers upon them a series of physical and meditative practices. Çaivite scholar Paul Muller-Ortega once said “The mantra is not an arbitrary set of syllables, and no amount of secondary meaning built onto a set of arbitrary syllables will make it a mantra. The mantra is a powerful vehicle you hop on and ride straight into enlightenment.” This statement is rooted in a discussion of the opposing views of southern çäkta tantrism and the “Kashmiri” çaiva tantrism on the issue of what a mantra is and how it functions. Muller is arguing that the southern çäkta tradition of using mantras with no “intrinsic” meaning and literally “layering” meaning upon arbitrary syllables as a form of mantric practice is distant and perhaps even inexplicable from the “Kashmiri” Çaivite perspective. Rather, the Çaivite mantra is thought to be literally a manifestation of çiva consciousness that functions as a vehicle to ascend into the heart of çiva. This is the very thesis I will test: What exactly is the nature of the çaiva mantra theory and practice? Does çaiva philosophy directly suggest the mantra is a tool itself empowered, or does it actually believe it is the understanding of the mantra that functions to create freedom consciousness? As a matter of clarification, this is not an attempt to understand the “sonic” nature of reality, described by Andre Padoux as “väc”, with its multiple layers of realism. Rather, this is meant to be a detailed study of Mantra and an investigation of mantra as a specific sort of tool for expanding consciousness.

The Farm Scale Evaluations of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops (GMHT) were conducted in the UK from 2000 to 2002 on beet (sugar and fodder), spring oilseed rape and forage maize. The management of the crops studied is described and compared with current conventional commercial practice. The distribution of field sites adequately represented the areas currently growing these crops, and the sample contained sites operated at a range of management intensities, including low intensity. Herbicide inputs were audited, and the active ingredients used and the rates and the timings of applications compared well with current practice for both GMHT and conventional crops. Inputs on sugar beet were lower than, and inputs on spring oilseed rape and forage maize were consistent with, national averages. Regression analysis of herbicide-application strategies and weed emergence showed that inputs applied by farmers increased with weed densities in beet and forage maize. GMHT crops generally received only one herbicide active ingredient per crop, later and fewer herbicide sprays and less active ingredient (for beet and maize) than the conventional treatments. The audit of inputs found no evidence of bias.

The effects of the management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops on the abundances of aerial and epigeal arthropods were assessed in 66 beet, 68 maize and 67 spring oilseed rape sites as part of the Farm Scale Evaluations of GMHT crops. Most higher taxa were insensitive to differences between GMHT and conventional weed management, but significant effects were found on the abundance of at least one group within each taxon studied. Numbers of butterflies in beet and spring oilseed rape and of Heteroptera and bees in beet were smaller under the relevant GMHT crop management, whereas the abundance of Collembola was consistently greater in all GMHT crops. Generally, these effects were specific to each crop type, reflected the phenology and ecology of the arthropod taxa, were indirect and related to herbicide management. These results apply generally to agriculture across Britain, and could be used in mathematical models to predict the possible long-term effects of the widespread adoption of GMHT technology. The results for bees and butterflies relate to foraging preferences and might or might not translate into effects on population densities, depending on whether adoption leads to forage reductions over large areas. These species, and the detritivore Collembola, may be useful indicator species for future studies of GMHT management.

Farmland biodiversity and food webs were compared in conventional and genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops of beet (Beta vulgaris L.), maize (Zea mays L.) and both spring and winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). GMHT and conventional varieties were sown in a split-field experimental design, at 60-70 sites for each crop, spread over three starting years beginning in 2000. This paper provides a background to the study and the rationale for its design and interpretation. It shows how data on environment, field management and the biota are used to assess the current state of the ecosystem, to define the typical arable field and to devise criteria for selecting, sampling and auditing experimental sites in the Farm Scale Evaluations. The main functional and taxonomic groups in the habitat are ranked according to their likely sensitivity to GMHT cropping, and the most responsive target organisms are defined. The value of the seedbank as a baseline and as an indicator of historical trends is proposed. Evidence from experiments during the twentieth century is analysed to show that large changes in field management have affected sensitive groups in the biota by ca. 50% during a year or short run of years--a figure against which to assess any positive or negative effects of GMHT cropping. The analysis leads to a summary of factors that were, and were not, examined in the first 3 years of the study and points to where modelling can be used to extrapolate the effects to the landscape and the agricultural region.

, 1847-1862 358 2003 Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Nuttall, Z. Randle, M. J. Rossall, R. J. N. Sands, E. J. Singer and M. J. Walker P. Fairfax, B. H. Garner, L. A. Haylock, S. L. Horne, S. E. Hulmes, N. S. Mason, L. R. Norton, Birchall, M. P. Skellern, J. H. Walker, P. Baker, D. Bell, E. L. Browne, A. J. G. Dewar, C. M. Clark, A. M. Dewar, L. G. Firbank, J. N. Perry, P. Rothery, R. J. Scott, I. P. Woiwod, C. D. R. Brooks, D. A. Bohan, G. T. Champion, A. J. Haughton, C. Hawes, M. S. Heard, S. J. crops. I. Soil-surface-active invertebrates tolerant and conventional spring − modified herbicide Invertebrate responses to the management of genetically

The effects of management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops on adjacent field margins were assessed for 59 maize, 66 beet and 67 spring oilseed rape sites. Fields were split into halves, one being sown with a GMHT crop and the other with the equivalent conventional non-GMHT crop. Margin vegetation was recorded in three components of the field margins. Most differences were in the tilled area, with fewer smaller effects mirroring them in the verge and boundary. In spring oilseed rape fields, the cover, flowering and seeding of plants were 25%, 44% and 39% lower, respectively, in the GMHT uncropped tilled margins. Similarly, for beet, flowering and seeding were 34% and 39% lower, respectively, in the GMHT margins. For maize, the effect was reversed, with plant cover and flowering 28% and 67% greater, respectively, in the GMHT half. Effects on butterflies mirrored these vegetation effects, with 24% fewer butterflies in margins of GMHT spring oilseed rape. The likely cause is the lower nectar supply in GMHT tilled margins and crop edges. Few large treatment differences were found for bees, gastropods or other invertebrates. Scorching of vegetation by herbicide-spray drift was on average 1.6% on verges beside conventional crops and 3.7% beside GMHT crops, the difference being significant for all three crops.

1 Studies of the epigeal coleopteran fauna on five pairs of organic and conventional farms were carried out between May and July 1994 in southern England using pitfall trapping. A total of 27 749 individuals and 140 species were identified. Overall, abundance of Coleoptera was greatest on organically managed farms.2 Ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and staphylinid beetles (Col. Staphylinidae) formed 79.7% and 16.7%, respectively, of the total catch. Pterostichus melanarius was the dominant carabid among the 45 species captured and significantly higher numbers were found in organic farms. Tachinus signatus was the most common of 44 staphylinid species, and was significantly more abundant on conventional farms.3 For carabids, the log-series alpha diversity index was higher on conventional farms but was not statistically different from that calculated for organic farms. The alpha index was identical for staphylinid species from organic and conventional farms. Diversity was significantly higher from conventional farms when data were combined for all of the recorded coleopteran species.4 From this study, it appears that the main effect of farming practice is to influence the overall abundance and dominance of particular species, and the lower diversity of organic farms is a consequence of the large increase in dominance of a single species, namely P. melanarius.

1. Several genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops have cleared most of the regulatory hurdles required for commercial growing in the United Kingdom. However, concerns have been expressed that their management will have negative impacts on farmland biodiversity as a result of improved control given by the new herbicide regimes of the arable plants that support farmland birds and other species of conservation value.2. The Farm-Scale Evaluations (FSE) project is testing the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the management of GMHT varieties of beet, oilseed rape and maize and that of comparable conventional varieties in their effect on the abundance and diversity of arable plants and invertebrates. The FSE also aims to estimate the magnitude and consider the implications of any differences that are found.3. The experimental design of the FSE is a randomized block, with two treatments allocated at random to half-fields. The target sample is around 60-75 fields for each crop, selected to represent variation of geography and intensity of management across Britain. The experimental crops are managed by commercial farmers as if under commercial conditions.4. Biodiversity indicators have been selected from plants and terrestrial invertebrates to identify differences between crop management regimes that may result in important ecological changes over larger scales of space and time. Field sampling is at fixed points, mainly along transects from the field boundary, starting before the crop is sown and continuing into following crops.5. Synthesis and applications. The FSE is best considered as an investigation into the effects of contrasting crop management regimes on farmland biodiversity, rather than a study of the effects of genetic modification. It could become a model for future studies of ecological effects of the way we use and manage agricultural land.

The effects of herbicide management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) beet, maize and spring oilseed rape on the abundance and diversity of soil-surface-active invertebrates were assessed. Most effects did not differ between years, environmental zones or initial seedbanks or between sugar and fodder beet. This suggests that the results may be treated as generally applicable to agricultural situations throughout the UK for these crops. The direction of the effects was evenly balanced between increases and decreases in counts in the GMHT compared with the conventional treatment. Most effects involving a greater capture in the GMHT treatments occurred in maize, whereas most effects involving a smaller capture were in beet and spring oilseed rape. Differences between GMHT and conventional crop herbicide management had a significant effect on the capture of most surface-active invertebrate species and higher taxa tested in at least one crop, and these differences reflected the phenology and ecology of the invertebrates. Counts of carabids that feed on weed seeds were smaller in GMHT beet and spring oilseed rape but larger in GMHT maize. In contrast, collembolan detritivore counts were significantly larger under GMHT crop management.

Unmanned and manned interorbital shuttle systems for satellite placement and repair and planetary spacecraft insertion, emphasizing cost analysis

Propellant injection through electrodes effect on plasma potential distribution in MPD arc thruster