A blinded trial in two different laboratories was performed to compare the detection of selected enteric pathogens in 92 unselected faecal samples collected from patients with community-acquired diarrhoea by conventional and PCR-based techniques. Conventional techniques detected a single potential etiological agent in 15% of the samples, whereas results of PCR detected evidence of at least one agent in 41% of the samples. Overall, the detection rates for the different pathogens were as follows: adenovirus serogroup F, 1%; Campylobacter spp., 7.6%; Salmonella spp., 4%; enteroaggregative Escherichia coli, 9.8%; enteropathogenic E. coli, 6.5%; enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens, 3%; Cryptosporidium spp., 13%; and Giardia spp., 11%. Results for the detection of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and C. perfringens were similar by both techniques, whereas Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. were detected 22 times more often by PCR than by conventional microscopy. It was not possible to compare the results for detection of enteroaggregative E. coli and enteropathogenic E. coli since these were only investigated by PCR. The results of this small study clearly demonstrate the advantages of PCR-based methods compared to conventional techniques for the detection of gastrointestinal pathogens.

An interlaboratory study was conducted for the validation of 3 methods for the detection of all verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli (VTEC) in foods. The methods were a multi-analyte 1-step lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) for detection of E. coli O157 and verotoxin (VT); an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay targeted against VT1, VT2, and VT2c (VT-ELISA); and a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method for detection of VT genes (VT-PCR). Aliquots (25 g or 25 mL) of 4 food types (raw minced [ground] beef, unpasteurized milk, unpasteurized apple juice [cider], and salami) were individually inoculated with low numbers (<9 to 375 cells/25 g) of 6 test strains of E. coli (serogroups O26, O103, O111, O145, and O157) with differing VT-producing capabilities. Five replicates for each test strain and 5 uninoculated samples were prepared for each food type. Fourteen participating laboratories analyzed samples using the LFIA, 9 analyzed the samples by ELISA, and 9 by PCR. The LFIA for O157 and VT had a specificity (correct identification of negative samples) of 92 and 94%, respectively, and a sensitivity (correct identification of positive samples) of 94 and 55%, respectively. The VT-ELISA and VT-PCR had a specificity of 98 and 99%, respectively, and a sensitivity of 89 and 72%, respectively.

The alkaline phosphatase test is used as an indicator of adequate pasteurisation of milk and cream. A proprietary fluorimetric technique (Fluorophos) is a sensitive and quantitative method for the determination of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity in milk products. Currently, adequate pasteurisation of milk products is regarded as confirmed in samples that contain a residual bovine ALP activity of < or =500 mU/litre. This is equivalent to the statutory acceptable level of 4ug phenol/ml required by the EC analytical method. The purpose of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of pasteurisation of milk and cream produced by on-farm dairies. In a longitudinal study over a four-year period, 4,999 samples of milk and cream were collected from 130 on-farm dairies and from two large commercial dairies in NW England for comparison. Bovine ALP activity of >500 mU/litre was deemed as a failure and was found in 3.5% of whole milk, 2.4% semiskimmed milk, 5.0% of skimmed milk, and 39% of cream samples from on-farm dairies. Bovine ALP activity of >100 and <500 mU/litre was found in 18.4% of whole milk, 9.3% of semi-skimmed milk, 13.2% skimmed milk and 44.5% of cream samples from on-farm dairies. Results with skimmed milk samples showed significantly lower bovine ALP activity than whole milk. All 409 milk and cream samples from two large commercial dairies passed the fluorimetric test at less than 500 mU/litre of bovine ALP, and 99% of these milk and cream samples had bovine ALP activity of less than 100 mU/litre. The presence of residual bovine phosphatase indicates a failure and may be due to either inadequate pasteurisation or post pasteurisation contamination with raw milk. Residual bovine phosphatase was demonstrated in 108/114 (94.7%) of milk samples with a bovine ALP activity greater than 500 mU/litre, i.e. true failures. Of more concern is that residual bovine phosphatase was found in 395/401 (98.5%) of samples that gave bovine ALP activity greater than 100 mU/litre but equal to or less than 500 mU/litre. Residual bovine phosphatase was demonstrated in 37/108 (30.2%) of cream samples with bovine ALP activity greater than 500 mU/litre. Presence of reactivated bovine phosphatase is not an indication of a failure but can mask the presence of residual bovine phosphatase. Reactivated bovine phosphatase was found in 74/106 (69.8%) of cream samples. Our results confirm that the more sensitive fluorimetric method is suitable for testing pasteurised whole milk and semiskimmed milk, but for statutory purposes the acceptable level of residual bovine phosphatase should be <100 mU/litre. Our findings have highlighted a potential problem when testing skimmed milk and cream samples from on-farm dairies. To ensure public safety we need more stringent standards for the ALP test and new methods that will accurately confirm that pasteurisation of these products has been achieved.

Objectives. Campylobacter jejuni enteritis can lead to musculoskeletal, neuropathic or other health sequelae. We investigated the coexistence, seasonal occurrence, strain-type associations and impact on work capacity of different health problems following C. jejuni enteritis in a Lancashire population during 1999 and 2001.Methods. A semistructured questionnaire was used to characterize health problems that occurred in the community after laboratory-confirmed episodes of C. jejuni enteritis. The questionnaire was posted to all adults in the Preston and Chorley area who developed C. jejuni enteritis in 1999 or 2001. All Campylobacter isolates from this population were serotyped.Results. Several types of sequelae occurred consistently in both years, including the coexistence of musculoskeletal and neuropathic problems. There was no evidence of C. jejuni strain-type associations or seasonal preponderance for any type of sequela. The overall health impact of C. jejuni enteritis, as measured by workdays lost, was high in this population.Conclusions. A variety of health problems occur consistently following C. jejuni enteritis and substantially increase morbidity due to campylobacteriosis in the community.

at the time of first presentation to paediatric rheumatology services.

Aims: To identify and make available through the National Collection of Type Cultures (NCTC) a set of reference isolates for the clonal complexes of Campylobacter jejuni .Methods and Results: The development of a multilocus sequence typing scheme for C. jejuni enabled the genetic characterization of a large number of isolates (n=814) from cases of human disease, animals, birds and their food products. The nucleotide sequence data were used to assign each isolate an allelic profile or sequence type (ST) and examine the C. jejuni population structure in terms of clonal complexes. The clonal complexes consisted of an abundant central or founder genotype (ST), after which the complex was named, together with very closely related, generally less abundant genotypes differing from the founder at one, two or three loci. The clonal complex is an informative unit for the study C. jejuni epidemiology. It provides data which enabled the choice of 13 C. jejuni founder isolates for submission to the NCTC as a representative cross-section of the C. jejuni population.Conclusions: These 13 isolates provide a defined resource for further research into aspects of C. jejuni biology such as genomic diversity, virulence and adaptation to particular hosts or environmental survival.Significance and Impact of Study: This isolate collection is available through the NCTC and provides a resource for further research.

International Journal of Food Science & TechnologyVolume 38, Issue 6 p. 735-739 Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of urease-positive thermophilic Campylobacters (UPTC) isolated from shellfish John E. Moore, Corresponding Author John E. Moore Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UK *Fax: +44(28) 2589 2887; e-mail: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorAnne Canney, Anne Canney Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UKSearch for more papers by this authorTimothy Stanley, Timothy Stanley Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UKSearch for more papers by this authorDavid R. A. Wareing, David R. A. Wareing Preston Public Health Laboratory, Royal Preston Hospital, Sharoe Green Lane, Preston, Lancashire, UKSearch for more papers by this authorAki Kaneko, Aki Kaneko Laboratory of Molecular Biology, School of Environmental Health Sciences, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Sagamihara 229, JapanSearch for more papers by this authorLester Russell, Lester Russell Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UKSearch for more papers by this authorB. Cherie Millar, B. Cherie Millar Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UKSearch for more papers by this authorPhilip G. Murphy, Philip G. Murphy Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UKSearch for more papers by this authorMotoo Matsuda, Motoo Matsuda Laboratory of Molecular Biology, School of Environmental Health Sciences, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Sagamihara 229, JapanSearch for more papers by this author John E. Moore, Corresponding Author John E. Moore Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UK *Fax: +44(28) 2589 2887; e-mail: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorAnne Canney, Anne Canney Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UKSearch for more papers by this authorTimothy Stanley, Timothy Stanley Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UKSearch for more papers by this authorDavid R. A. Wareing, David R. A. Wareing Preston Public Health Laboratory, Royal Preston Hospital, Sharoe Green Lane, Preston, Lancashire, UKSearch for more papers by this authorAki Kaneko, Aki Kaneko Laboratory of Molecular Biology, School of Environmental Health Sciences, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Sagamihara 229, JapanSearch for more papers by this authorLester Russell, Lester Russell Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UKSearch for more papers by this authorB. Cherie Millar, B. Cherie Millar Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UKSearch for more papers by this authorPhilip G. Murphy, Philip G. Murphy Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast BT9 7AD, Northern Ireland, UKSearch for more papers by this authorMotoo Matsuda, Motoo Matsuda Laboratory of Molecular Biology, School of Environmental Health Sciences, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Sagamihara 229, JapanSearch for more papers by this author First published: 14 July 2003 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2621.2003.00729.xCitations: 4Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Citing Literature Volume38, Issue6August 2003Pages 735-739 RelatedInformation

A real-time PCR assay was developed for the quantitative detection of Campylobacter jejuni in foods after enrichment culture. The specificity of the assay for C. jejuni was demonstrated with a diverse range of Campylobacter species, related organisms, and unrelated genera. The assay had a linear range of quantification over six orders of magnitude, and the limit of detection was approximately 12 genome equivalents. The assay was used to detect C. jejuni in both naturally and artificially contaminated food samples. Ninety-seven foods, including raw poultry meat, offal, raw shellfish, and milk samples, were enriched in blood-free Campylobacter enrichment broth at 37 degrees C for 24 h, followed by 42 degrees C for 24 h. Enrichment cultures were subcultured to Campylobacter charcoal-cefoperazone-deoxycholate blood-free selective agar, and presumptive Campylobacter isolates were identified with phenotypic methods. DNA was extracted from enrichment cultures with a rapid lysis method and used as the template in the real-time PCR assay. A total of 66 samples were positive for C. jejuni by either method, with 57 samples positive for C. jejuni by subculture to selective agar medium and 63 samples positive in the real-time PCR assay. The results of both methods were concordant for 84 of the samples. The total time taken for detection from enrichment broth samples was approximately 3 h for the real-time PCR assay, with the results being available immediately at the end of PCR cycling, compared to 48 h for subculture to selective agar. This assay significantly reduces the total time taken for the detection of C. jejuni in foods and is an important model for other food-borne pathogens.

Human campylobacteriosis is currently the most common cause of acute bacterial gastroenteritis on the island of Ireland, accounting for over 3,000 laboratory reports per year, where circa 2,000 reports originate from the Republic of Ireland and circa 1,000 reports from Northern Ireland. Elsewhere, consumption of contaminated poultry has been associated with the zoonotic transmission of disease, therefore it was the aim of this study to examine the phenotypic and genotypic relatedness of campylobacters isolated from chickens and humans locally. Sixty isolates were subtyped using phenotyping techniques (biotyping, phage-typing), as well as genotyping techniques (multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MEE), ribotyping) and the data compared. The frequency of shared phenotypes and genotypes between poultry and humans varied depending on the typing technique employed ranging from 98.2% of human isolates sharing a similar resistotyping (MAST) disc type with poultry strains to 20% similarity with MEE typing. Overall, this small study is the first report on phenotypic and genotypic relatedness between human and poultry campylobacters in Northern Ireland, isolated under controlled conditions. The study demonstrated an association between chicken and human sub-species types, taken from a relatively contained epidemiological environment. Further work is required with larger numbers of isolates coupled with typing schemes, which are able to reliably cluster strains from chicken and humans, which share high degrees of clonality, before local poultry can be conclusively proven to be a significant source of human campylobacteriosis.

Although there have been numerous studies investigating the prevalence of campylobacters in cooked foods, there are limited published data on the occurrence of these organisms in raw poultry in Ireland. Thermophilic campylobacters were detected in 254/275 (92.4%) batches of specimens of neck skin examined from raw processed chicken at slaughter, where one batch represented 10 individual samples taken from 10 consecutive birds, thus giving a total population of 2,750 birds examined. C. jejuni, C. coli and C. lan accounted for 78%, 20% and 2% of isolates, respectively. Quantitatively, there was a mean count of 202 cfu campylobacters/g neck skin and counts ranged from 32 to 480 cfu campylobacter/g. Subspecies characterization of a subset of total isolates recovered (i.e., approximately every sixth isolate; 17%) showed a large degree of phenotypic diversity, with several biotypes and phage-types being identified. All isolates were typed successfully by biotyping, but approximately only half of both C. jejuni and C. coli isolates were typed successfully by phage-typing. Neither species shared a common biotype; however, phagetypes 90, 91 and 121 were common to both C. jejuni and C. coli. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the high prevalence of a phenotypically diverse population of thermophilic campylobacters in poultry from Northern Ireland; however, their association with human disease remains unclear and an epidemiological study is required to address this potentially important relationship. Therefore, it is important that intervention controls are established at farm-level to minimize colonisation of the gastrointestinal tract of the bird and that emphasis continues to be placed on adoption of HACCP practices on the farm, during processing, at sale and distribution, and in the commercial or domestic kitchen.

jejuni, C. coli and C. lari remain the most common cause of acute bacterial enteritis in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, resulting in approximately 3000 positive results per annum and a trend that continues to rise. Most recent data for the year 2000 records 1001 positive results in Northern Ireland, which approximates to 59 cases per 100,000 individuals. This compares with a rate of 106 and 127 cases per 100,000 individuals for England & Wales and Scotland, respectively. A recent UK epidemiological study, however, estimates that the true prevalence of this infection is approximately 10-fold higher, due to patient under-reporting. Campylobacter spp. occupy a natural reservoir in the intestine of a wide range of feral and domesticated animal and birds, and enter the human food chain on raw animal products such as poultry, red meat and offal. Nonpasteurised milk has been the source of several large outbreaks and campylobacters can be found in inland and coastal waters as a result of faecal contamination by animals and sewage discharge. Human infections with Campylobacter spp. arise from direct contact with animals or with naturally contaminated raw or undercooked food products. Fortunately, large outbreaks of disease are rare and the majority of infections are sporadic. However, the vehicle of infection in most cases remains unidentified. The epidemiology of C. jejuni enteritis is hampered by a lack of a standardised identification and typing scheme. Few laboratories in the UK identify isolates to the species level and fewer still utilise any of the recognised typing schemes. The consequence of inadequate identification is scanty information about the frequency and distribution of the strain types that cause human infection and where they are to be found in the food chain. Differences in the attack rate between England & Wales and Northern Ireland merit further examination, as there is approximately 50% fewer laboratory-reported cases of campylobacteriosis per 100,000 population in Northern Ireland compared to Britain. Clarification of the reasons for these differences may permit the introduction of effective intervention controls to reduce the incidence of the disease within the British Isles. Hence, it may be postulated that such differences are attributed to social behaviour and food Phenotypic diversity of campylobacter isolates from sporadic cases of human enteritis in Northern Ireland

AIMS:The application of an automated immunomagnetic separation-enzyme immunoassay (AIMS-EIA) during the investigation of a suspected outbreak of Salmonella food poisoning at a retail premises.METHODS AND RESULTS:Six food samples and 24 environmental swabs were taken from the retail premises and six food handlers' submitted faecal samples during the investigation of the outbreak. Isolation and identification of Salmonella from these samples was performed according to established standard operating procedures and by AIMS-EIA. Twelve of the 18 (67%) Salmonella culture positive samples were AIMS-EIA positive on testing pre-enrichment samples after 24 h, whilst 17 (94%) samples were AIMS-EIA positive following selective enrichment for a further 48 h. One food handler was found to be positive for Salmonella by both culture and AIMS-EIA. All Salmonella isolates were confirmed as Salmonella Enteritidis phagetype 21c.CONCLUSIONS:The AIMS-EIA protocol compliments the conventional culture approach to produce more timely results for the management of the risk to public health without significantly increasing the workload of the laboratory.SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY:The food production premise investigated in this study was heavily contaminated with Salmonella Enteritidis. Application of the AIMS-EIA was significant in the effective intervention of control measures for the protection of public health.

A total of 814 isolates of the foodborne pathogen Campylobacter jejuni were characterized by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and analysis of the variation of two cell-surface components: the heat-stable (HS) serotyping antigen and the flagella protein FlaA short variable region (SVR). We identified 379 combinations of the MLST loci (sequence types) and 215 combinations of the cell-surface components among these isolates, which had been obtained from human disease, animals, food, and the environment. Despite this diversity, 748 (92%) of the isolates belonged to one of 17 clonal complexes, 6 of which contained many (318, 63%) of the human disease isolates. Several clonal complexes exhibited associations with isolation source or particular cell-surface components; however, the latter were poorly predictive of clonal complex. These data demonstrate that the clonal complex, as defined by MLST, is an epidemiologically relevant unit for both long and short-term investigations of C. jejuni epidemiology.

A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay based on a solution hybridization format with colorimetric end-point detection (PCR ELISA) was investigated for the specific detection of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in food samples following enrichment culture. One hundred fifteen samples of raw meat and offal (poultry, porcine, ovine, and bovine), raw shellfish, and artificially contaminated milk were enriched in blood-free Campylobacter Enrichment Broth for 48 h. Enrichment cultures were subcultured to Campylobacter blood-free selective agar plates, and presumptive isolates were identified by phenotypic methods. DNA was extracted from 1-ml aliquots of the enrichment cultures using a rapid extraction method, and the DNA was used as the template in a PCR ELISA. A comparison of the PCR ELISA with the enrichment culture and subculture to selective agar method showed that the results of 112 of the 115 samples tested were in agreement by both methods. Seventy-one of the various food samples were positive in the PCR ELISA, and 70 samples were positive by culture. The PCR ELISA had a sensitivity of 99% and a specificity of 96%, with a positive predictive value of 97% and a negative predictive value of 98%. The PCR ELISA is a rapid, sensitive, and specific method for the detection of C. jejuni and C. coli in foods following enrichment culture and significantly reduces the time required for their detection.

Veterinary RecordVolume 150, Issue 16 p. 518-520 Short Communication Characterisation of fluoroquinoloneresistant Campylobacterspecies isolated from human beings and chickens J. E. Moore PhD, J. E. Moore PhD Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Department of Bacteriology, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, BT9 7ADSearch for more papers by this authorP. McLernon MMedSci, P. McLernon MMedSci Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Department of Bacteriology, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, BT9 7ADSearch for more papers by this authorJ. Xu MB, J. Xu MB Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Department of Bacteriology, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, BT9 7ADSearch for more papers by this authorP. G. Murphy MB, MSc, MD, FRCPath, P. G. Murphy MB, MSc, MD, FRCPath Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Department of Bacteriology, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, BT9 7ADSearch for more papers by this authorD. Wareing PhD, D. Wareing PhD Preston Public Health Laboratory, Royal Preston Hospital, Sharoe Green Lane, Preston, PR2 9HGSearch for more papers by this author J. E. Moore PhD, J. E. Moore PhD Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Department of Bacteriology, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, BT9 7ADSearch for more papers by this authorP. McLernon MMedSci, P. McLernon MMedSci Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Department of Bacteriology, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, BT9 7ADSearch for more papers by this authorJ. Xu MB, J. Xu MB Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Department of Bacteriology, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, BT9 7ADSearch for more papers by this authorP. G. Murphy MB, MSc, MD, FRCPath, P. G. Murphy MB, MSc, MD, FRCPath Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory, Department of Bacteriology, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, BT9 7ADSearch for more papers by this authorD. Wareing PhD, D. Wareing PhD Preston Public Health Laboratory, Royal Preston Hospital, Sharoe Green Lane, Preston, PR2 9HGSearch for more papers by this author First published: 20 April 2002 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.150.16.518Citations: 11Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. References ANON (1998) PHLS methods for food products: detection of Campylobacter species. Standard Methods: F21. London, Public Health Laboratory Service BOLTON, F. J., HOLT, A. V. & HUTCHINSON, D. 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Salmonella and Campylobacter continue to be major foodborne pathogens and raw poultry is considered to be an important source of these bacteria. In this study, the prevalence and numbers of Salmonella and Campylobacter spp. in relation to isolation/sampling methods were determined in 241 whole raw chickens purchased from retail outlets in England during the winters of 1998/1999 (101 chickens) and 1999/2000 (140 chickens). The packaging of the 140 chickens was also examined for the presence of the above pathogens. The prevalence and numbers of enterococci were examined in 21 of the 101 chickens. In total, Salmonella and Campylobacter spp. were present in 25% and 83% of the chickens, respectively. Salmonella were isolated from a sample representing both the inside and outside of the packaging in 19% of the chickens, while the corresponding figure for Campylobacter spp. was 56%. Both of these pathogens were isolated from the outside of the packaging in 6% of the chickens. Salmonella was more frequently isolated from samples containing chicken skin in comparison with those containing carcass-rinse fluid only. Two chickens (0.8%) were positive for Salmonella by direct enumeration methods with contamination levels of log10 3.8 and 4.5 colony forming units (cfu) per carcass, respectively. The most prevalent serotypes were S. Hadar, S. Enteritidis and S. Indiana and two different serotypes were identified in 5/20 salmonella-positive chickens. Resistance to at least one antibiotic was found in 70% of the strains, 46% were multiresistant (resistant to > or = four drugs) and 52% showed a lowered susceptibility to ciprofloxacin. The likelihood of isolating Campylobacter spp. from neck-skin, carcass-rinse or carcass-rinse plus whole skin samples was similar, Campylobacter spp. were found in higher levels in carcass-rinse or carcass-rinse plus whole skin samples than in neck-skin. The log10 cfu of Campylobacter spp. were 2.70-4.99 in 18% of the chickens and 5.00-6.99 in 20%. Campylobacter isolates (425) comprised Campylobacter jejuni (98%) and C. coli (2%) and 98 different sero/phagetypes of these two species were identified. Resistance to at least one antibiotic was found in 73% of the strains and 13% were multiresistant. Thirteen percent of the strains showed lowered susceptibility to ciprofloxacin, while 4.9% were resistant to erythromycin. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), able to grow on agar containing 15 mg l(-1) vancomycin (VRE15), were present in 19 chickens. The log10 cfu of VRE15 was 2.90-3.99 in 10 chickens and between 4.00 and 4.99 in two chickens. The data presented here contribute to risk assessment and highlight the need to continue to emphasise the safe handling of raw retail poultry.