Climate variability is a key factor influencing the distribution and adaptive response of mammalian species, including hominins. Here, we investigate seasonal and interannual hydroclimatic and environmental variability associated with the late Early Pleistocene hominin occupations on the Southeastern Ethiopian Highlands. We present stable carbon and oxygen isotope analyses of sequentially sampled tooth enamel from herbivores recovered from the archaeological contexts of Melka Wakena and Gadeb (2300-2400 m a.s.l.) and dated between 1.6 and ~ 1.0 Ma. Carbon isotope data indicate predominantly C4 and mixed C3-C4 diets, consistent with mosaic vegetation as part of the Dry evergreen Afromontane Forest and grassland complex (DAF). Intra-tooth oxygen isotope profiles suggest seasonal variability and interannual fluctuations in water balance, reflecting changes in precipitation, evaporation, and local hydrology. Although the temporal resolution of individual tooth records precludes identification of specific climatic drivers, the isotopic data document recurring hydroclimatic variability within high-elevation environments characterized by broadly comparable ecological conditions. Herbivore diets show limited long-term change, suggesting sustained resource availability across seasons and over hundreds of thousands of years. These results indicate that the Ethiopian Highlands repeatedly supported mammalian communities and recurrent Acheulean hominin occupations during the late Early Pleistocene, providing sustained access to water and vegetation resources within an Afromontane environmental framework.

Neanderthal presence in the southern Levant has raised questions regarding behavioral flexibility and adaptation strategies across diverse climatic and ecological settings. The association of most Levantine Neanderthal sites with the last glacial period has led some researchers to frame their presence and subsequent disappearance from the region as climatically driven. Increasingly, the use of site-specific paleoenvironmental proxies and recognition of Neanderthal behavioral complexity are challenging simple climate-driven explanations, suggesting resilience to ecological impacts. Amud Cave is a key Levantine Middle Paleolithic site documenting Neanderthal occupation from Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 through early MIS 3. Its two discrete occupation phases provide a framework for comparing local environmental dynamics across fluctuating glacial conditions. Here, we present an isotopic study of fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) tooth enamel and plant waxes extracted from archaeological sediments directly associated with Neanderthal activity. These proxies are used to refine reconstructions of evolving hydroclimatic and ecological conditions at Amud and to evaluate their implications for hunting behavior. Plant wax hydrogen and carbon isotope results indicate that the late occupation phase was characterized by hydroclimatic variability alongside an expansion of woody vegetation in the cave's vicinity. This finding supports previously proposed climate-mediated changes in gazelle hunting practices. In contrast, tooth enamel isotope data does not indicate diachronic shifts in fallow deer home ranges. Oxygen, carbon, and strontium isotope ratios instead suggest persistent exploitation of low-lying channels near the cave, with only sporadic use of adjacent territories during both occupation phases. Together, these results indicate that Amud Neanderthals employed differential procurement strategies for distinct prey species, reflecting behavioral flexibility in hunting organization. Such flexibility likely enabled stable access to resources despite changing ecological conditions. Considered alongside evidence for amelioration during the Amud sequence, these findings underscore importance of non-climatic factors shaping Neanderthal persistence and disappearance from Levant.

The study of percussive technologies is crucial for understanding the cognitive and adaptive capacities of early hominins in all archaeological periods. Percussive technologies of early hominins testify to a large range of daily activities and serve as a source of information on raw material selection and tool-use strategies. These technologies also inform on the broader economic, social, and technical organisation of early hominin societies. While Acheulean assemblages document an increase in the variability of lithic raw materials and tool types used for percussion activities compared to the Oldowan, the functional significance of such changes remains understudied. By experimentally assessing the effects of percussive actions on different raw materials, this study aims to advance our understanding and ability to identify use-wear traces related to bone percussion during the Acheulean, providing a reference that directly contributes to the study of the Melka Wakena site complex in Ethiopia. In this paper, we present the results of a laboratory-controlled mechanical experiment combined with multi-scale analyses, including 3D scanning and multi-scale microscopy, to examine the effects of percussive actions on the natural surfaces of different raw materials. Our results show how traces form in different raw materials, providing additional data to further the characterization of traces. Such experimental data are fundamental for inferring decision-making criteria involved in the selection and use of various raw materials by early Acheulean stone toolmakers.

We investigated the macrostructure and pore morphology of ostrich eggshells to evaluate their potential as indicators of past ostrich taxonomy and paleoenvironmental conditions in the southern Levant. We compared pore patterns of all extant ostrich species with those observed on eggshell fragments recovered from 20 archaeological sites in Israel, dating from the late Middle Pleistocene to the late Holocene. Our analysis revealed a shift from a clustered pore pattern-resembling that of the extant Somali ostrich-to a scattered pattern characteristic of the now-extinct Syrian ostrich. This transition, which occurred approximately between 100 and 70 ka, is tentatively interpreted as evidence of a species turnover, an interpretation supported by ecological niche models, which suggest that suitable habitats for the Somali ostrich existed in the southern Levant prior to similar to 100 ka, with peaks of particularly high habitat suitability around 240 ka and 120 ka. We propose that the presence of the Somali ostrich in the southern Levant possibly coincided with interglacial conditions that facilitated faunal movement through an open biogeographic corridor connecting Africa and the Levant. The entry of the Syrian ostrich into the region was associated with more arid condition. Our findings demonstrate the value of ostrich eggshells as a taxonomic biomarker and for reconstructing past environments and faunal distributions in the southern Levant and other regions.

Neandertal infants are rarely found, with only a few individuals documented in the literature. Therefore, their growth and development remain poorly understood. Amud 7 is the articulated skeleton of an infant Neandertal discovered in Amud Cave, northern Israel.1,2 The cave was excavated in the 1960s1 and the 1990s2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 and has yielded several human remains with distinct Neandertal affinities,1,9,10,11,12,13,14 as well as Middle Paleolithic stone tool assemblages,15,16,17,18,19,20,21 dated to approximately 51-56 thousand years old.22,23 Nearly 111 skeletal pieces of Amud 7 were found in situ, of which only the cranial bones were thoroughly described.24,25,26,27 It is the most complete Neandertal infant assigned to the 6- to 14-month age range. As such, it plays a significant role in our understanding of Neandertal paleobiology. The skeleton exhibits distinct Neandertal affinities in both cranial and postcranial remains, and its morphological features shed light on Neandertal phylogeny, growth, and development. Most notably, the infant exhibits signs of unusually rapid somatic growth, suggesting that Neandertals had a distinct developmental strategy in early life. Other rare Neandertal infants show the same pattern of accelerated early somatic and endocranial growth, suggesting a consistent difference in how our evolutionary relatives developed. Simultaneously supporting faster somatic growth and brain development would have resulted in high energetic demands. These findings emphasize the diversity of developmental strategies among hominin species and demonstrate that Neandertals might have followed a different developmental path, distinguishing them from H. sapiens.

Amud and Kebara caves (northern Israel) are two broadly contemporaneous Middle Paleolithic sites dated to ca. 70–50 Ka BP, both located in the Mediterranean realm of the southern Levant. Neanderthal occupations at these sites are represented by considerable amounts of lithic artifacts, combustion features and abundant faunal material as well as human remains. As similar mammalian taxonomic distributions were observed in these two Neanderthal cave sites, we explore the complexity and diversity of their animal resources processing techniques by comparing cut-marks characteristics and patterns. A total of 344 animal bone fragments bearing cut-marks were selected from specific stratigraphic contexts from both sites, and studied using macroscopic and microscopic techniques (i.e., Focus Variation microscopy) to quantify, characterize, and measure the cut-marks left on the bones. The observations were compared across the stratigraphic units and between the sites. Despite comparable taxonomic distributions, there are notable differences in the density and layout of cut-marks between the two caves. The micro-morphometric characteristics of these marks also highlight intra- and inter-site differences and similarities. This evidence might suggest distinctive butchering strategies between the Neanderthal populations in Amud and Kebara caves despite comparable occupation intensities, similar lithic technologies, and access to similar food resources. Such discrepancies could possibly reflect inter-group cultural differences related to carcass processing preferences, organization of tasks within the group, or socially transmitted traditions.

In this paper we investigate the seasonality of site occupation at Amud Cave (Israel). This site presents a long sedimentary sequence featuring two main late Middle Paleolithic occupation phases (70 – 55 Ka BP) rich in anthropogenic remains, and displaying very high densities of lithic artifacts, faunal remains and evidence of combustion. The abundance of these features appears high relative to the thickness of the sequence, thus raising the question of the duration and frequency of site occupation(s). We aim here to unravel this issue implementing a multiproxy approach to the dental fraction of the faunal assemblage. Combining teeth replacement and wear patterns coupled with micro- and mesowear analyses, we provide insights into the seasonality of occupation and hunting strategies at the site. We found that hunting activities at Amud Cave were conducted mainly in the course of the winter months with possible expansion into the late fall and early spring. This result is consistent with regional and local climate reconstructions and resources procurement locations evidenced in previous works. Assuming a fast depositional rate, we suggest that the sequence results from frequent seasonal returns to the site, forming a palimpsest of short-term occupations. This scenario is compatible with settlements and mobility patterns inferred for the late Middle Paleolithic in the Southern Levant.

Innovations, such as symbolic artifacts, are a product of cognitive abilities but also of cultural context. Factors that may determine the emergence and retention of an innovation include the population's pre-existing cultural repertoire, exposure to relevant ways of thinking, and the invention's utility. Thus, we suggest that the production of symbolic artifacts is not guaranteed even in cognitively advanced societies.

The evolution of human behaviour is marked by key decision-making processes reflected in technological variability in the early archaeological record. As part of the technological system, differences in raw material quality directly affect the way that humans produce, design and use stone tools. The selection, procurement and use of various raw materials requires decision-making to evaluate multiple factors such as suitability to produce and design tools, but also the materials’ efficiency and durability in performing a given task. Therefore, characterizing the physical properties of various lithic raw materials is crucial for exploring changes in human interactions with their natural environment through time and space and for understanding their technological behaviour. In this paper, we present the first step in an ongoing program designed to understand the decision-making criteria involved in the use of raw materials by the early Acheulian tool-makers at the Melka Wakena (MW) site-complex, located on the Ethiopian highlands. We present the results of the first experimental step, in which we identified and measured the engineering properties of raw materials in the lithic assemblages. These data serve as an objective, quantifiable baseline for natural experiments as well as archaeological inquiries into the technological decision-making processes of early Pleistocene hominins in Africa.

Nahal Dimona 24 is a Middle Paleolithic rock shelter, the first Middle Paleolithic sheltered site identified and excavated in the arid Negev region, southern Israel. The site exhibits at least one well preserved in situ archaeological horizon that was dated by Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to MIS 3-4 (Late Middle Paleolithic). The lithic assemblage from Nahal Dimona 24 in dominated by the centripetal Levallois knapping mode, sharing technological characteristics with earlier Middle Paleolithic sites from the southern Levant such as Qafzeh Cave and Nesher Ramla Quarry. At the same time, Nahal Dimona 24 differs from other late Middle Paleolithic sites mainly in the paucity of unidirectional convergent Levallois strategy and triangular end-products. Within the southern Levant Middle Paleolithic, dominance of centripetal Levallois knapping mode has frequently been associated with MIS 5 chronology and is seen by some as a cultural marker of human demic diffusion into the Levant during this time span. Based on the lithic assemblage and OSL ages from Nahal Dimona 24, we suggest that within the technological variability of the Middle Paleolithic in the Levant, the dominance of a specific lithic production mode is not a sufficient cultural or chronological marker. We further propose that since long stratified sequences may be a result of many visits by different human groups, short-term occupations like Nahal Dimona 24 might shed new light on the use of the different modes of Levallois preparation in the late Middle Paleolithic since they may better reflect the use of specific technological traditions related to Levallois preparation.

In recent years, archaeological research has demonstrated the presence of abstract non-utilitarian behaviour amongst palaeolithic hominins, fuelling discussions concerning the origin and implications of such complex behaviours. A key component in these discussions is the aesthetic and symbolic character of intentionally incised artefacts. In this study, we emphasize the geometry of the incisions as clues to intentionality. Using 3D surface analysis, we characterised incisions found on a Levallois core from Manot cave, and on a flake and retouched blade from Amud cave. In addition, we applied the same methodology to the previously published engraved Levallois core from Qafzeh and the plaquette from Quneitra. The incisions on the Manot, Qafzeh and Quneitra artefacts show similar geometric characteristics. Notably in each of these cases, the incisions form patterns that align with the artefact’s surface topography and shape. In contrast, the incisions on the Amud artefacts are shallower, with no clear orientation or patterning. The methodology applied thus creates a comparative context for MP incised items, reinforcing the interpretation of the Manot, Qafzeh and Quneitra artefacts as deliberate engravings, whereas the marks on the items from Amud are consistent with their functional use as abraders. While the Qafzeh, Quneitra and Manot items are isolated initiatives in their chronological and geographic contexts, the shared traits of the intentional engravings underscore their predetermined nature.

The site of Dimona South is a knapping locality in the Negev desert of Israel, situated at the raw material source. A test excavation followed by a salvage excavation conducted during 2020 revealed a partly buried archaeological layer that was exposed over an area of 40 m2 and yielded a well-preserved lithic assemblage. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) ages of sediments within and above the archaeological layer fall within MIS 5. With a lithic assemblage dominated by Nubian Levallois technology, this site provides a rare opportunity for analysis of a well-dated, in situ Nubian assemblage. A refitting study in combination with an attribute analysis of the whole assemblage allowed the reconstruction of the Nubian reduction sequence. Our analyses indicate that a specifically pre-planned Nubian point production system existed at the site. It is characterized by the early preparation of an acute distal ridge and its careful maintenance throughout the reduction process until the cores were exhausted. These characteristics stand out from most Levantine Middle Paleolithic assemblages. The discovery of Dimona South allows us to revisit some of the technological issues at the heart of debates about Levallois Nubian technology that could not be addressed from analyses of partial surface assemblages. These new data from a secure and dated context are crucial to the inter-site and regional technological comparisons, informing our views of the Nubian technology and its role in the Middle Paleolithic world of eastern Africa, Arabia and the Levant.

Isaac GL (1969) proposed that Large Cutting Tools (LCTs) made on large flake blanks detached from giant/boulder cores are the key technological variable that distinguishes the Acheulian from the Oldowan. The production of large flake blanks was initially observed in the earliest records of the Acheulian technology in Africa ca. 1.75 Ma, subsequently becoming a technological feature of many sites across eastern Africa. Still, the mode and tempo of evolution of the large flake-based Acheulian technology remains poorly understood. Here we report on the large flake-based Acheulian assemblage at locality MW5 in the Melka Wakena site-complex, chronologically constrained between 1.37 and 1.34 Ma. At the site-complex level we note that aspects related to small flake production remain relatively unchanged since 1.6 Ma. Secondary modification of small flakes by retouch remained marginal and there is only a slight increase in the frequency of structured reduction of cores, compared to the earlier 1.6 Ma assemblage. In contrast, the MW5 lithic assemblages inform of the diachronic shift of lithic techno-economy into a large flake-based LCTs technology. This shift is characterized by: (1) A highly selective use of a specific raw material (glassy ignimbrite) for the production of large flake blanks; (2) transport of prepared large flake blanks from relatively distant sources into the sites as part of a spatially and temporally fragmented reduction sequence; (3) improved know-how of large flake production, (4) the introduction of the Kombewa technology; (5) a unified technological concept for the production of handaxes and cleavers, diverging only in the specific decisions determining their final shape parameters. Taken together, these trends indicate changes in techno-economic strategies related to LCT production, including higher levels of pre-planning in the raw material acquisition stage and higher investment in controlling the morphometric properties of the artifacts.

In 2017, a hemimandible (MW5-B208), corresponding to the Ethiopian wolf ( Canis simensis ), was found in a stratigraphically-controlled and radio-isotopically-dated sequence of the Melka Wakena paleoanthropological site-complex, on the Southeastern Ethiopian Highlands, ~ 2300 m above sea level. The specimen is the first and unique Pleistocene fossil of this species. Our data provide an unambiguous minimum age of 1.6–1.4 Ma for the species’ presence in Africa and constitutes the first empirical evidence that supports molecular interpretations. Currently, C. simensis is one of the most endangered carnivore species of Africa. Bioclimate niche modeling applied to the time frame indicated by the fossil suggests that the lineage of the Ethiopian wolf faced severe survival challenges in the past, with consecutive drastic geographic range contractions during warmer periods. These models help to describe future scenarios for the survival of the species. Projections ranging from most pessimistic to most optimistic future climatic scenarios indicate significant reduction of the already-deteriorating territories suitable for the Ethiopian Wolf, increasing the threat to the specie’s future survival. Additionally, the recovery of the Melka Wakena fossil underscores the importance of work outside the East African Rift System in research of early human origins and associated biodiversity on the African continent.

Abstract Symbol making involves active agency, as it is, by definition, intentional and aims to deliver messages, worldviews, and social contents to designated audiences. As archaeology can specify only elements of behavior that are expressed as material objects, it must focus on material objects and their contexts. Accordingly, this chapter does not aim to elucidate the symbolic content of objects. Whether the role of objects is perceived as a clear dichotomy between utilitarian and symbolic or as a “mixed bag,” in the practice of prehistoric archaeology it is the context of artifacts that is often enlisted to provide telltale signs about their role in the behavioral system. Employing archaeological tools (material culture, chronology, and context), the chapter addresses (1) the epistemology of understanding prehistoric symbols by reviewing criteria that are prevalent in the research to assess whether an object may have acted as a symbolic manifestation and (2) the diachronic shift from a cognitive capacity to comprehend and make symbolic objects to a broader, evolved, symbolic behavioral system. Its review of the Pleistocene symbolic record of the Levant suggests that the trajectories of change parallel patterns (though not necessarily the same chronology) observed in neighboring regions. The analysis suggests that rather than changes in the neurological infrastructure per se, the coevolution of symbolic behavior and social complexity is driven by changes in social cognition as a major adaptive tool in hominin cultural evolution.

Human populations rely on cultural artefacts for their survival. Populations vary dramatically in the size of their tool repertoires, and the determinants of these cultural repertoire sizes have been the focus of extensive study. A prominent hypothesis, supported by computational models of cultural evolution, asserts that tool repertoire size increases with population size. However, not all empirical studies have found such a correlation, leading to a contentious and ongoing debate. As a possible resolution to this longstanding controversy, we suggest that accounting for even rare cultural migration events that allow sharing of knowledge between different-sized populations may help explain why a population's size might not always predict its cultural repertoire size. Using an agent-based model to test assumptions about the effects of population size and connectivity on tool repertoires, we find that cultural exchange between a focal population and others, particularly with large populations, may significantly boost its tool repertoire size. Thus, two populations of identical size may have drastically different tool repertoire sizes, hinging upon their access to other groups' knowledge. Intermittent contact between populations boosts cultural repertoire size and still allows for the development of unique tool repertoires that have limited overlap between populations.