The Corinth Gulf, Central Greece, is one of the most rapidly widening tectonic rifts on Earth, where large earthquakes with magnitudes of up ~7.0 have been documented not only by instrumental records but also assessed from historical reports extending back to the 5th century BCE. Several of these earthquakes were associated with tsunamis, particularly in the western part of the Gulf. Of particular interest is the ancient harbor of Lechaion in the eastern side of Corinth Gulf. We reexamine the hypothesis that Lechaion was hit by high-energy tsunami waves in the 8th–6th century BCE, 1st–2nd century CE, and during the 6th century CE. On the basis of sedimentological, seismotectonic, archaeological and historical data, completed with field observations, we support that there is no evidence for tsunami impact in Lechaion. Local stratigraphy and environmental changes are rather interpreted by human impacts and gradual coastal processes. Such interpretations confirm that the tsunami potential in the east Corinth Gulf is relatively low.

This article reviews key data and debates focused on relative sea-level changes since the Last Interglacial (approximately the last 132,000 years) in the Mediterranean Basin, and their implications for past human populations. Geological and geomorphological landscape studies are critical to archaeology. Coastal regions provide a wide range of resources to the populations that inhabit them. Coastal landscapes are increasingly the focus of scholarly discussions from the earliest exploitation of littoral resources and early hominin cognition, to the inundation of the earliest permanently settled fishing villages and eventually, formative centres of urbanisation. In the Mediterranean, these would become hubs of maritime transportation that gave rise to the roots of modern seaborne trade. As such, this article represents an original review of both the geo-scientific and archaeological data that specifically relate to sea-level changes and resulting impacts on both physical and cultural landscapes from the Palaeolithic until the emergence of the Classical periods. Our review highlights that the interdisciplinary links between coastal archaeology, geomorphology and sea-level changes are important to explain environmental impacts on coastal human societies and human migration. We review geological indicators of sea level and outline how archaeological features are commonly used as proxies for measuring past sea levels, both gradual changes and catastrophic events. We argue that coastal archaeologists should, as a part of their analyses, incorporate important sea-level concepts, such as indicative meaning. The interpretation of the indicative meaning of Roman fishtanks, for example, plays a critical role in reconstructions of late Holocene Mediterranean sea levels. We identify avenues for future work, which include the consideration of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) in addition to coastal tectonics to explain vertical movements of coastlines, more research on Palaeolithic island colonisation, broadening of Palaeolithic studies to include materials from the entire coastal landscape and not just coastal resources, a focus on rescue of archaeological sites under threat by coastal change, and expansion of underwater archaeological explorations in combination with submarine geomorphology. This article presents a collaborative synthesis of data, some of which have been collected and analysed by the authors, as the MEDFLOOD (MEDiterranean sea-level change and projection for future FLOODing) community, and highlights key sites, data, concepts and ongoing debates.

A series of ongoing landslides occurred at the steep coastal slopes at Pigadakia location, on the road connecting Chalkoutsi and Dilesi towns, at NE Attica. These landslides caused severe disruption on local traffic. Engineering geological study revealed the local geological conditions and the complex mechanism of the landslides. Site is located on the Neogene deposits composed mainly by layers of sandy or silty clays, marly clays with thin layers of conglomerates. Multiple landslides occurred on the steep costal slopes at a length of 280m parallel to the coast line. On the upper slopes which are composed by loose clayey materials typical circular failures occurred while on the lower ones, composed by hard clays and marls, discontinuities delineate failures under the weathering influence of sea waves. Six boreholes were drilled with piezometers and inclinometers installed in order to investigate the progress of the failures. The stabilization of the upper slopes included the use of soil nails covered with geocells. The lower slopes stabilization included the protection from sea wave erosion by covering slopes with a rock fill embankment.

The coast of the Mediterranean provide several remnants of ancient coastal quarries, which are now useful to study sea level change occurring during the last millennia. Millstones quarries were exploited with same quarrying techniques from rocks like beachrocks, sandstones or similar lithologies, were shaped to be suitable to grind olives, seeds and wheat, to produce oil and flour, or to break apart soft rocks.In this study we integrated historical sources, aerial photography, field surveys and palaeo sea-level modelling to investigate a number of millstones quarries with the aim to asses the intervening sea level change that occurred since the quarries were abandoned.We investigated on their chronology, spatial distribution and spatial relationship to the sea-level. Our results indicate that most of these were carved close to sea level between 1.45 ka and 0.25 ka cal BP, but mainly around 0.45 cal ka BP. Despite the uncertainties associated with the chronology in, we found good agreement between their lowest elevation (between 0.33 m and -0.06 m) and the paleo sea-levels, as predicted by the GIA models. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Along the Peloponnesian coast of the Saronic Gulf and on the coast of Aegina and Poros islands, submerged coastal geomorphological features related directly with submerged ancient coastal constructions, indicate three distinct sea levels. Submerged tidal notches incised on the carbonate basement, beachrocks formed in the intertidal zone and archaeological indicators, such as the ancient harbour installations in Kenchreai and Epidaurus and on Aegina island, the extended coastal buildings and constructions in Agios Vlasis, Psifta and Palaiokastro-Methana, and Vagionia on Poros island, are used to determine the age and magnitude of submersion and the extent of the Upper Holocene marine transgression. By the correlation of geomorphological, historical and archaeological indications three distinct sea levels were identified, at -3.30 +/- 0.15 m, -0.90 +/- 0.15 m and -0.55 +/- 0.05 m. Initial change in sea level occurred definitely after AD 400 +/- 100. The intermediate change is dated between AD 1586 and 1839, and the most recent change after 1839. Sea transgression followed a long period of sea level stability, which lasted at least 2200 years, from the Middle Bronze Age to the Late Roman period. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Study of the architectural, morphological and constructional features of the coastal harbour installations of the ancient foreharbour of Lechaion indicates that they were built or rebuilt during the period of the Roman domination of Corinth, and has facilitated the reconstruction of the vertical movements and the palaeogeography of the coast. On the basis of the current position of the sea level indicators including beachrocks, fossilized uplifted and submerged marine notches, and ancient coastal harbour installations, and the relationship between them, the sea level during the Roman operation of the harbour was determined to be 0.90 m lower than at present. Furthermore, the subsequent abandonment of the harbour and the siltation of its constructions were determined. During two successive tectonic subsidence co-seismic events, the sea level rose by 2.0 m in total, 1.60 m during the first event and 0.40 m during the second one. A strong uplift tectonic event followed and the sea level dropped by 1.10 m. This regression of the sea was responsible for the present shoreline morphology. Determination of the sea level fluctuation at the shore of the ancient harbour of Lechaion allowed the palaeogeographical reconstruction of the coast in different stages related to these changes. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

The Skete of Osios Nikanoras is located in a cavern of a vertical limestone escarpment 80m high, over Aliakmon River in West Macedonia. The vertical slope is structured predominantly of thick-bedded limestone, dipping moderately towards NW and only locally of thin-bedded limestone. It is crossed by three transverse and four normal faults. Rock mass was divided in sections, demarcated by bedding planes and major discontinuities. Each section was subdivided into rock blocks. Rock mass description was carried out in areas below the entrance level and the surrounding areas of the Skete as well. The future water level rise, due to the filling of the Ilarion Dam’s reservoir, followed by water level fluctuations, will impose an initial increase and a subsequent variation of water pressures in the rock mass discontinuities. The evaluation of the rock mass stability, due to water induced loads, was therefore required. Stability analysis has been performed in order to determine potential wedge, plane and toppling failure modes. The measures that were adopted for the conservation of the monument were designed taking into account the restrictions regarding the monuments preservation. The proposed solution comprised three stages of installation of support measures, namely, installation of temporary rock bolts for the pre-strengthening of the rock mass, followed by the execution of grouting and finally installation of permanent rock anchors, thus ensuring adequate factors of safety.

The extensive ancient harbor installations - today submerged - on the seafront of Kolona in Aegina are associated with the great trading and maritime development of the island from the Middle Bronze Age to the Middle Classical period.Based on geomorphological and archeological indications, three distinct relative sea levels can be defined at depths of 3.17 +/- 0.05 m, 0.97 +/- 0.05 m and 0.52 +/- 0.05 m. The dating of the sea level changes based on archeological evidence and historical sources shows that the initial sea level change in Aegina occurred certainly after AD 170 and most likely after AD 250. The intermediate change is dated between AD 1586 and AD 1839, and the most recent change occurred between 1839 and 1999. A transgression followed a long period of sea level stability that lasted at least 2200 years, from the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 3900 yr BP) to the Late Roman period (ca. 1700 yr BP).According to the paleogeographical reconstruction of the coast, the ancient harbor installations stretch along 1600 m of coastline. The north harbor is bounded by the north breakwater, the riprap on the once wide sandy coast, the detached west breakwater, and the uplift morphology of the west end of Kolona Hill. On the south coast, the harbor installations comprise the fortified "closed harbor" with the shipsheds, the commercial harbor, which is entirely destroyed by the modem port, the anchorage area that is bounded by the west breakwater and built of cone-shaped piles of stones, the tops of which once projected above the sea level, and the south curved breakwater at its southernmost boundary. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The gypsum deposits to the southwest of the city of Heraklion, northern Crete, have been widely used as a construction material from early times either as structural or ornamental stone or foundation rock. In the study area, they were exploited and used extensively for the construction of the Knossos Palace. Although gypsum is considered as a basically weak and soluble material, it has withstood the test of time and the occasional failure problems have been observed only recently after the excavations and especially after the completion of the early restoration works. The paper attempts to highlight the geotechnical properties of gypsum and relate them to the various gypsum formation mechanisms and environments.

In the present paper, a critical approach to the evaluation of Schmidt hammer testing is attempted. Through a statistical analysis of field measurements on sandstone blocks from the archaeological site of Delphi (Greece), it was shown that there is an inconsistency in the correction method proposed by the manufacturer, in relation to the direction of rebound.

A description of the superficial and underground constructions as well as the existing structural problems of St. George castle of Cephalonia is attempted, in order to organise a restoration plant of the site.