Current classifications of excavated Plio-Pleistocene archaeological distributions (mini-site, maxi-site, on-site, off-site) oversimplify the apparent incompleteness of the excavations and the variability in the vertical and horizontal distributions demonstrated by systematic spatial analysis. An alleged mini-site (FxJj 64) and maxi-site (FxJj 50) at Koobi Fora are illustrative of lithic and faunal distributions contained in consolidated, massive, fine-grained beds having geological evidence of vegetation (including trees), of biogenic and mechanical processes that can destroy internal bedding and vertically displace archaeological pieces, and of irregular paleotopography that can distort archaeological distributions. Horizontal distributions are subdivided into clusters and subclusters that have variable vertical resolution. Vertical distributions of refitted and unrefitted pieces are suggestive that the greater thickness of some distributions relates primarily to the reuse of particular places by hominids after some previously discarded refuse was partially or completely buried and secondarily to bioturbation and other post-depositional processes. Although the lesser thickness of some distributions (or vertical zones thereof) probably relates to the accumulation of refuse on one old land surface (or possibly two), the contents provide converging evidence that refuse accumulated during repeated (discontinuous) episodes of hominid activity. Repetition of hominid activities at particular places and refuse accumulated in clusters and subclusters are attributed in part to the physical characteristics of particular places, including trees that might have attracted hominids especially for refuge (shade, retreat from on-the-ground dangers) and enabled them to engage in activities more safely and unhurriedly than at treeless places. It is urged that Plio-Pleistocene archaeological excavations be deeper and wider and alternative interpretations be considered of each aspect of hominid behavior in developing comprehensive models.

As part of a widening interest in site formation processes, archaeologists have turned to ethnoarchaeology for insight into the factors that contribute to variability in the spatial makeup of prehistoric hunter-gatherer sites (e.g., Binford 1978a, 1983; Gould 1980; O'Connell 1987; Schiffer 1983; Spurting and Hayden 1984; Yellen 1977a). The structure of this volume reflects the fact that ethnoarchaeology complements archaeology in the development of methods for the discovery, description, and interpretation of intrasite spatial patterns. Together these approaches constitute an effective method for investigating prehistoric hunter-gatherer sites.

Central place models test economic optimization hypotheses about resource processing and transport in archaeological contexts. These models require input values for the weights of resource portions, values that are typically found through the empirical measurement of one or a few specimens of a taxon of interest. This method is limited by the availability of specimens for measurement and often relies on small sample sizes that cannot account for body size variation due to factors such as age, sex, heath, and genetics. As an alternative, biological scaling equations are introduced with which mammalian resource portion weight averages with standard deviations can be estimated across a range of body sizes in a mammalian taxon. A case study from the Northwest Coast of North America operationalizes this approach. The study asks if economic factors can account for a difference in the relative abundance of marmot (Marmota vancouverensis) bones at high-elevation archaeological sites compared with shoreline middens on Vancouver Island. Results indicate that abundant marmot skeletal elements at high-elevation sites are consistent with the economic benefit of processing these small mammals close to capture sites. Transport costs can explain the near absence of marmot bones at shoreline sites in the study area, a conclusion that does not preclude alternative explanations. This study demonstrates that biological scaling equations are useful for estimating mammalian resource portion input values in theoretical modelling.

Previous articleNext article No AccessDiscussion and CriticismOn Inferences From the Zhoukoudian FaunaHenry T. Bunn and Ellen M. KrollHenry T. Bunn Search for more articles by this author and Ellen M. Kroll Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Current Anthropology Volume 28, Number 2Apr., 1987 Sponsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/203512 Views: 6Total views on this site Citations: 4Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 1987 The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological ResearchPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Christopher J. Norton, Xing Gao Hominin–carnivore interactions during the Chinese Early Paleolithic: Taphonomic perspectives from Xujiayao, Journal of Human Evolution 55, no.11 (Jul 2008): 164–178.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.02.006Thomas Plummer Flaked stones and old bones: Biological and cultural evolution at the dawn of technology, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 125, no.S39S39 (Jan 2004): 118–164.https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20157Jean-Philippe Rigaud, Jan F. Simek Interpreting Spatial Patterns at the Grotte XV, (Jan 1991): 199–220.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2602-9_7 Ron Wallace Cognitive Mapping and the Origin of Language and Mind, Current Anthropology 30, no.44 (Oct 2015): 518–526.https://doi.org/10.1086/203778

Human origins research by archaeologists has expanded the evidence of the diet and subsistence activities of ancient hominids. We examine an important component of that evidence, the 1.75-million-year-old faunal assemblage from the FLK Zinjanthropus site at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Skeletal-part frequencies are used to evaluate hominid access to and differential transport of carcass portions of differing nutritional value. Cut-mark frequencies and locations are used to evaluate butchery patterns including skinning, disarticulation, and defleshing of carcasses. In contrast to other recently published assessments of the FLK Zinjanthropus data, we conclude that (1) ancient hominids had full access to meaty carcasses of many small and large animals prior to any substantial loss of meat or marrow bones through other predator or scavenger feeding; (2) ancient hominids were butchering animal carcasses by an efficient and systematic technique that involved skinning, disarticulation, and defleshing; and (3) the FLK Zinjanthropus site represents a place where the secondary butchering of selected carcass portions and the consumption of substantial quantities of meat and marrow occurred.

Excavation in the Upper Member of the Koobi Fora Formation in Kenya has revealed a cluster of stone artefacts and broken up bones which accumulated 1–5 million years ago on the banks of a water course. The assemblage had been preserved by layers of silt. The stone artefacts consist of flakes and flake fragments plus simple flaked cobbles. It has been possible to conjoin individual pieces linking about 10 per cent of the artefacts and 4 per cent of the identifiable bones in pairs or sets. In some cases it seems likely that the specimens were fractured on the spot. Some of the fracture patterns on the bones suggest breakage with hammers, and apparent cut marks have also been found on some bones. There are signs of the presence of scavenging carnivores as well as of tool‐making hominids, and both could have contributed to the workings of a complex input‐output system. Whether the site was a home‐base camp or simply a locality used for meat‐eating and tool‐making remains uncertain. Experimental work is being used in testing alternative interpretations.