Underground karst is a sensitive component of the Earth's Critical Zone (ECZ), capable of preserving changes in its dynamics driven by both natural and anthropogenic forces. In this study, we examine the Holocene sedimentary archive preserved in Tana della Mussina Cave (TdMC) in the northern Apennines of Italy. This archive includes clastic and chemical (speleothem) sediments, as well as archaeological deposits linked to human occupation of the site since the Copper Age. Our reconstruction indicates that sedimentation in the cave responded to changes in the hydrology of the karst system, alternating between phases of clastic deposition and periods of sedimentary hiatus, along with a documented phase of speleothem precipitation. Clastic sedimentation occurred particularly after the Greenlandian/Northgrippian boundary and again at the onset of the Meghalayan phase of the Holocene, likely in response to increased water availability, which led to the accumulation of fluvial sediments transported through the TdMC catchment. In contrast, speleothem deposition took place later, between 3800 and 2200 years BP. From around 5500 years BP, clastic sedimentation is marked by a significant accumulation of charcoal and lumps of heated sediment/soil. We interpret this evidence because of human activity, specifically extensive deforestation, which has been archaeologically documented in the region since the Copper Age. The slash-and-burn technique, used to clear land for pasture or agriculture, increased soil erosion rates, leading to a greater influx of sediments into the karst system, including charcoal and remnants of heated soils. This case study provides an example of early human land use change impacting surface processes and influencing the dynamics of the ECZ.

Current warming and human activity have negatively impacted the hydrological budget of some of the larger lakes in the Balkan region. To explore potential climatic analogues for the recent climatic period we investigated a speleothem record from Golubarnica Cave in North Macedonia focusing on hydrological changes occurring during the Medieval Climatic Anomaly (MCA). The 518O record and petrography identify a period of drier conditions between ca. 800 and 1250 CE, chronologically consistent with the MCA. This is broadly consistent with lake lowstands in lakes Prespa and Dojran obtained by geomorphological, sedimentological and diatom data, as well as increasing evaporation at lakes Prespa and Ohrid inferred by 518O of endogenic lacustrine calcite. Taken together, these observations point to an extensive effect of the MCA-related hydrological anomaly over the Balkan region, which occurred during a period of persistent positive North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Our results offer an important analog for comparing the regional response under the ongoing pressure of global warming.

Antarctic ice cores and ocean-sediment records preserve evidence for an increase in the amplitude of glacial-interglacial cycles at around 430 ka, known as the Mid-Brunhes Transition (MBT). However, similar evidence from non-polar terrestrial environments is rare, casting some doubt on the global extent of this transition. Here we present a multi-proxy speleothem record from Corchia Cave (Alpi Apuane, Italy) that spans the MBT. It comprises a stacked d18O and d13C time series from multiple stalagmites anchored in time by U-Th and U-Pb ages; and trace element, 87Sr/86Sr, and d18O and d13C profiles from a subaqueous calcite deposit (CD3) that has grown continuously from 970 ka to the present. We anchored the CD3 record to the chronology of a stalagmite stack by synchronisation of their respective d18O and d13C profiles. CD3 is well suited to this study because it yields a suite of proxies from just a single specimen that covers multiple glacial-interglacial cycles either side of the MBT. In particular, its d13C profile provides a reference for comparing the amplitude of glacial-interglacial temperature changes at Corchia to globally integrated ice-volume (LR04 benthic 18O/16O stack) and greenhouse gas (ice-core CO2 and CH4)time series. The CD3 temperature record builds on a previous trace element study, which revealed that the Mg/Ca in this speleothem is strongly influenced by mineralisation temperature (a proxy for external air temperature at the cave site). This is supported by subsequent clumped-isotope palaeothermometry. We thus developed a continuous palaeotemperature time series for CD3 extending to ~650 ka via a Mg-D47 transfer function. The temperature profile reveals compelling evidence for a shift in glacial-interglacial amplitude across the MBT. Temperatures during the interglacials of MIS15e, 15a and 13a are lower in Corchia compared to those of MIS11c, 9e, 5e and the Holocene; temperatures during MIS7e and 7c are the exception, only reaching the levels of the pre-MBT interglacials. Minimum glacial temperatures for MIS16 and 14 are warmer in Corchia than those of the subsequent glacial maxima, and the MIS12 and 6 glacials are the coldest of the last 650 kyr. All of these patterns are consistent with existing global ice-volume and greenhouse gas records but provide a rare and important terrestrial perspective. This finding confirms previous assessments that the MBT was global in extent.

The AMUSED project (A MUltidisciplinary Study of past global climatE changes from continental and marine archives in the MeDiterranean region, https://progetti.ingv.it/index.php/it/amused) aims at improving knowledge of middle-late Quaternary climate variability by integrating paleoclimate multi-proxy data acquired in different geological settings of the Mediterranean region. In this context, we investigate the Castiglione maar, Colli Albani volcanic district in central Italy, for acquiring a high-resolution and geochronologically well-constrained multi-proxy record of the lacustrine succession. After geophysical exploration, two parallel 116 m- and 126.5 m-long sediment successions were recovered from the central sector of the basin. The sedimentary infilling mainly consists of fine sand, silt and clay, with minor gravel intervals and numerous tephras mostly deriving from explosive eruptions of the Roman Province volcanoes such as Mt. Vulsini, Vico, Mt. Sabatini and Alban Hills. More than fifty visible volcanic layers were identified and used, together with some lithostratigraphic features, for correlating the two parallel cores and build up a composite sediment section of 131.2 m in length. The geochemical fingerprinting of some key tephra layers allowed to establish a preliminary chronological framework for the Castiglione succession spanning the last 365 ka, with a mean sedimentation rate of 0.33 mm/yr. High resolution X-ray Fluorescence scanning was acquired at 2.5 mm intervals on the composite section and will be used, along with preliminary results from total inorganic and organic carbon, δ18O-δ14C and ostracods analyses, for paleoenvironmental reconstructions.

This study presents a high-resolution, multiproxy (carbon and oxygen isotopes, trace elements, and strontium isotopes) speleothem record from the Kurdistan Region of Iraq extending from the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to the Early Holocene (18.0 to 7.5 ka), encompassing the Epipaleolithic–Neolithic transition in the core area of the Fertile Crescent (FC). The record shows that changes in local rainfall amount were coincident with changes in Greenland temperatures, with increased precipitation and enhanced multidecadal hydroclimatic variability during the Bølling–Allerød chronozone, followed by a drier and dustier Younger Dryas. Comparison with regional paleoclimate data suggests similar precipitation patterns across the FC, but with greater hydroclimate variability during the BA and drier conditions during the YD in the eastern sector. Crucially, the record provides a detailed and well-dated paleoenvironmental template by which to contextualize specific cultural events at the subregional scale, as revealed by recent archaeological research on key sites sharing similar environmental settings, allowing to investigate the role of climatic and environmental changes in shaping different neolithization patterns across the FC.

The U–Th and U–Pb dating methods are widely employed for radiometric dating of Pleistocene carbonates, such as speleothems and corals. The U–Th dating method has been progressively refined over recent decades, largely through advances in mass spectrometry, and is now capable of providing accurate and precise ages for carbonates as old as ∼ 650 000 years under optimal circumstances. Similarly, the U–Pb method, traditionally restricted to dating pre-Quaternary materials, has been adapted in recent years for dating young carbonates. As a result, there is now substantial overlap in the applicable age range of these two dating methods but, thus far, only limited assessment of their consistency and relative performance when dating samples over this shared age interval. In this study, we conduct a systematic comparison of the U–Th and U–Pb dating methods, focusing on a significant part of their overlapping age range (approximately 630–430 ka). We achieve this by dating speleothem (secondary cave mineral deposit) samples from Corchia Cave, central Italy, using both methods and evaluate their consistency and performance in terms of age precision and other factors. We adopt analytical approaches that employ state-of-the-art multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICPMS) measurement protocols, including a U–Th measurement protocol that utilises a Faraday cup equipped with a 1013 Ω resistor to collect the low-abundance 234U+ and 230Th+ ion beams. This approach is particularly well-suited to dating samples approaching the limits of the U–Th method but also enables accurate determination of 238U/235U ratios. Thus, as a secondary component of this study, we compare our 238U/235U measurements with previously published speleothem values. Our results demonstrate excellent agreement between the U–Th and U–Pb dating methods and suggest that both are capable of providing accurate and precise ages over this interval. We find that U–Pb age uncertainties are generally less predictable than U–Th age uncertainties but, on average, do not increase significantly over the interval considered. U–Th age uncertainties, on the other hand, tend to increase in a more predictable and approximately exponential manner. Additionally, U–Pb age uncertainties are highly dependent on the availability of sub-samples with a substantial spread in parent/daughter ratios and/or highly “radiogenic” (i.e. very low inherited Pb) material. In our dataset, U–Pb isochron age precision surpasses that of U–Th precision at ∼ 520 ka, although the exact crossover point is expected to vary for different sample types and depositional settings. Overall, these findings support the prospect of obtaining accurate and internally consistent U-series chronologies spanning the Middle Pleistocene. They also suggest that, for some carbonate samples, the U–Pb dating method may provide superior age precision to the U–Th method prior to the latter reaching its upper age limit. Finally, our results show that most speleothems exhibit 238U/235U ratios consistent with global carbonate values and that these ratios typically deviate from the conventional value of 137.88, widely adopted in geochronology, in agreement with previous studies.

Applications of conventional isotopes (e.g., H, O, C, N, and S), as well as non-conventional (e.g., B, Li, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mg) and radiogenic isotopes (e.g., Sr, Nd, and Pb), offer unique opportunities to evaluate deep geological processes, environmental processes and their interactions within the Critical Zone (CZ). Human-induced climate change represents one of the most pressing environmental challenges of the twenty-first century; in the light of this, isotopic composition analysis provides an effective means to investigate it. Numerous studies have highlighted the fundamental role of isotope geochemistry in understanding environmental systems to critical zone processes, and the volume of research in this field continues to grow. Considering this, a comprehensive inventory of stable and radiogenic isotopes has become essential for tracking processes involving fluids, minerals, rock evolution, and origin, as well as examining interactions in soils, plants, and other reservoirs. Currently, data and information are unevenly distributed across various sources and institutions, leading to challenges in data recovery and integration. To address this gap, the ITINERIS Project (PNRR) has initiated Work Package 8.9, which focuses on developing the ISOTOPE Virtual Research Environment (VRE). A VRE can be described as an online environment offering remote and shareable disk space (workspace), catalogues and several customized tools for data processing. This initiative represents a pioneering step toward establishing Italy's first comprehensive national VRE service, encompassing a national database on stable isotopes. The Isotope VRE integrates tools for data analysis, interpretation, and modelling, enabling researchers and stakeholders to access coordinated information and advanced analytical tools. Some examples of data modelling are here reported: i) data plotting; ii) ternary diagrams; iii) mixing models. Initial results demonstrate the significant potential of the Isotope VRE in advancing our understanding of Earth system processes. Additional mathematical modelling approaches are under development, further enhancing the platform's capabilities. The Isotope VRE aims to provide the scientific community with a comprehensive virtual research environment for isotopic data sharing, analysis, and interpretation. This platform will empower researchers to investigate environmental processes with a suite of powerful tools, fostering new insights and applications in geochemistry and beyond.

During the Bronze and Iron Age, Sardinia was home of one of the most technologically advanced Mediterranean societies (the Nuragic culture). Given its key geographical location, the island was also the fulcrum of deep cultural exchanges. Toward the end of the Iron Age, Phoenicians, and especially Carthaginians and Romans, massively frequented Sardinia for different purposes. This marks an important cultural transition for the region, as the ancient Nuragic-related society terminated. At the same time, this impacted the subsistence and land use practices. Together with middle to late Holocene climate changes, the novel anthropic activities had a pivotal role in shaping the landscape around the island. However, high resolution climate and environmental records for these culturally important phases are still lacking in Sardinia. Thus, this paper explores palaeoenvironmental changes from the Bronze Age to post Iron Ages times by using carbonate speleothems from Suttaterra de Sarpis Cave (Urzulei, central east Sardinia), strategically located nearby the Or Murales Nuragic Village. U-Th ages (n = 20) indicate that five stalagmites comprehensively span the last similar to 7000 years. Peculiarly, they all show an evident stratigraphic discontinuity. Age models attest that hiatuses can be at times associated with the discontinuities, spanning periods of similar to 1200 to similar to 200 years. Importantly, the discontinuities occurred from the Late Iron Age to the Roman period. Based on fabric observations, trace elements and delta C-13- delta O-18 analyses, the discontinuities are primarily attributed to a progressive change of land use above the cave. We suppose that deforestation aimed to clearance for agriculture and livestock practices probably was the most impacting factor for infiltration dynamics and soil state, thus affecting the studied speleothems, although archaeological and historical data are absent for the specific study area. Instead, this is in line with the cultural transition occurring in Sardinia toward the end of the Iron Age, with novel agricultural practices imported by the overseas populations. The anthropic disturbance to the millennial-long karst equilibrium possibly overprinted the response of speleothem proxies to climate oscillations, although future higher resolution analyses are necessary to better investigate the evolution of climate during the Holocene as well as its role in the development of ancient civilizations. Indeed, this is the first speleothem-based Holocene palaeoenvironmental reconstruction accomplished in Sardinia. Considering the paucity of natural lakes in this key location, speleothems here demonstrate their potential in exploring human-driven palaeoenvironmental changes during times of cultural transitions within the Mediterranean context.

Abstract. The U–Th and U–Pb dating methods are widely used for radiometric dating of Pleistocene carbonates, such as speleothems and corals. The U–Th dating method has been incrementally refined over recent decades, largely through advances in mass spectrometry, and is now capable of providing accurate and precise ages for carbonates as old as 640 ka in ideal circumstances. Likewise, the U–Pb method, which was previously used exclusively for dating pre-Quaternary materials, has been adapted in recent times for dating carbonates as young as a few hundred ka. As a result, there is now considerable overlap in the applicable range of these two dating methods but, as yet, little data available regarding their consistency or relative performance when dating samples within this age range. In this study we undertake a systematic comparison of the U–Th and U–Pb dating methods focusing on a large part of their potential overlapping age range (∼430–630 ka). We achieve this by 'double dating' speleothems (secondary cave mineral deposits) from Corchia Cave, central Italy, that are well-suited to both methods and adopt state-of-the-art isotope dilution MC-ICP-MS analytical protocols. This includes a U–Th measurement protocol that collects the low abundance 234U+ and 230Th+ ion beams in a Faraday cup fitted with a 1013 Ω resistor, a protocol that is not only ideally suited to dating samples within this age range, but also permits measurement of 238U/235U ratios at a level of accuracy and precision appropriate for assessing natural 238U/235U variability. The results of this comparison demonstrate excellent agreement between the U–Th and U–Pb dating methods and show that both methods are capable of producing accurate and precise ages over this interval. We find that U–Pb age uncertainties are generally less predictable than U–Th age uncertainties, but on average do not increase significantly over the age interval consid- ered, whereas U–Th age uncertainties tend to increase in a more predictable (approximately exponential) manner. Furthermore, U–Pb age uncertainties are highly dependent on the availability of sub-samples with a substantial spread in Pb/U ratios and/or highly 'radiogenic' (i.e. very low inherited-Pb) material. We also find that average U–Pb isochron age precision surpasses that of U–Th age determinations at ca. 520 ka, although the exact age overlap point is expected to vary significantly across different sample types and study sites. Overall, these findings support the prospect of obtaining accurate and internally consistent U-series based chronologies spanning the Middle Pleistocene and beyond, and suggest that for some carbonate samples the U–Pb chronometer may provide superior age precision to the U–Th chronometer prior to the latter reaching its upper age limit.

Palaeoenvironmental data are fundamental in determining the manifold impacts of climate change. This paper argues that sessile barnacles are an excellent palaeoenvironmental proxy: they are present in nearly all nearshore environments, and their shell consists of diagenetically stable low-magnesium calcite and grows fast enough to record short-term variations. To demonstrate their utility, specimens from several Western Mediterranean Pliocene and Pleistocene barnacle-rich deposits are analysed herein, using for the first time a combination of sedimentology, taphonomy, stable isotope geochemistry and detailed comparisons with modern counterparts. Within shelf carbonate systems, barnacle diversity is highest in the shallow, nearshore waters and decreases moving offshore, thus providing a good proxy for the reconstruction of water depth and distance from the coastline. Barnacle taphonomy is also informative. Well-preserved complete specimens are characteristic of protected areas, whereas less well-preserved specimens occur in high-energy areas. The presence/absence of opercular plates is also particularly relevant for evaluating hydrodynamic conditions. As regards the C and O stable isotope ratios, due to the porous and coarse-grained nature of the deposits in which barnacle remains are usually found, the shells are often exposed to meteoric water percolation during diagenesis. Among the analysed specimens, only those collected from fine-grained deposits display no evidence of alteration and have isotopic ratios in line with those of their modern counterparts. These fossils display intra-shell variations that in modern barnacles have been related to short-term environmental changes (e.g., seasonal cycles). These results demonstrate that barnacles can always be useful for detailed palaeoenvironmental reconstructions based on skeletal assemblages. Furthermore, with further research aimed at gathering more data and assessing potentially interfering signals, they could become useful proxies for palaeoseasonality.

A multiproxy record from a stalagmite collected from Torgashinskaya Cave (Southern Siberia, Russia) and growing between ca. 6 and 3.8 ka shows evidence for regional climatic changes occurring at ca. 5 ka. Interpretation of stable isotope ratios (δ18O and δ13C) and fluorescence data (intensity and wavelength of the emitted fluorescence) suggests that the interval between ca. 5 and 4.2 ka was generally warmer and drier than the interval between ca. 6 and 5 ka. The observed bipartitioning of the climate, attributable to the so-called ‘middle-late Holocene transition’, has a striking similarity to changes in K+ and Na+ concentration of Greenland ice cores (taken as indicators of the strength of the Siberian High and Icelandic Low, respectively), in the abundance of hematite-stained grains in subpolar North Atlantic sediments and, to lesser extent, in the summer Asian monsoon intensity deduced by δ18O from Chinese speleothems. In particular, the δ18O record at Torgashinskaya Cave can be interpreted as mostly driven by temperature changes. Besides several episodes of drift towards higher temperatures, it also strongly suggests the presence of short cooling events centered at 4.1+0.08/-0.07, 4.85+0.05/-0.06, 5.1+0.09/-0.09, 5.3+0.08/-0.07 and 5.8+0.12/-0.13 ka. Notably, the last three such events are in very good correspondence with spikes in the K+ and Na+ concentration of Greenland ice cores. Instead, the cooling around 4.1 ka could be the local response to the 4.2 event, a cold/dry episode identified in several records in the Northern Hemisphere. This suggests that δ18O of speleothem calcite from this area could be a useful proxy for defining the evolution of the Siberian High and its effect on the wider regional climate.

In the first millennia of the Holocene, human communities in the Fertile Crescent experienced drastic cultural and technological transformations that modified social and human-environments interactions, ultimately leading to the rise of complex societies. The potential influence of climate on this “Neolithic Revolution” has long been debated. Here we present a speleothem record from the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, covering from Early Neolithic to Early Chalcolithic periods (~ 11 to 7.3 ka, 9000–5300 BCE). The record reveals the influence of the Siberian High on regional precipitation, and shows large hydroclimatic variability at the multicentennial scale. In particular, it highlights wetter conditions between 9.7 and 9.0 ka, followed by an abrupt reduction of precipitation between 9.0 and 8.5 ka, and a wetter interval between 8.5 and 8.0 ka. A comparison with regional and local archaeological data demonstrates an influence of recorded hydroclimatic changes on settlement patterns (size, distribution, permanent vs. seasonal occupation) and on the exploitation of water resources by Neolithic to Chalcolithic populations. Our record does not show prominent hydroclimatic changes at 9.3 and 8.2 ka, thus not supporting direct influence of such rapid and widespread events on the process of Neolithization and its cultural dispersal.

EDITORIAL article Front. Earth Sci., 10 March 2022Sec.Quaternary Science, Geomorphology and Paleoenvironment https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.858704

Since the Pleistocene, the Mediterranean is a hot spot for climate change and human migrations, thus offering the opportunity to investigate how human populations have responded to environmental changes and sea level variations. This is the main topic of the SPHeritage Project (MUR grant: FIRS2019_00040, P.I.: M. Pappalardo) that proposes an interdisciplinary approach to investigate the human-environment interaction (in particular sea level variations) over the last 400,000 years using a combination of micro-invasive methods. The Project is re-investigating the well-known archaeological area of ​​the Balzi Rossi (Ventimiglia, at the border between Italy and France), which represents a unique assemblage of archaeological sites dating to the Palaeolithic, distributed in a geomorphological setting rich of markers of past sea level changes. As most of the local archaeological sequences have been extensively investigated at the beginning of the last century and large part of the deposits removed, we will combine the analyses of materials preserved in museums (including strips of sediments) and the remnants still preserved inside many rockshelters and caves of the archaeological complex. Moreover, our geomorphological survey identified new sedimentary sequences preserving information on relative sea level changes. This approach will permit to obtain innovative data submitting small samples to state-of-the-art methods for dating and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, thus offering the opportunity to better constrain the time and steps of climate change, sea level oscillations, and human settlements. Moreover, data will converge into geoheritage analyses aimed at finding the best practices for promoting and protecting the site. Here, we present an overview of the project and preliminary results from some of the major archaeological sites.

The Fucino Basin, central Italy, with its long and continuous history of Quaternary sediment accumulation, is one of the richest Mediterranean Middle Pleistocene tephra records. Here, we present a new detailed investigation of tephra layers (tephras) of the 250–170 thousand years before present (ka) interval, corresponding to the entire Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 7 and parts of the MIS 8 and MIS 6. The investigated tephras have been characterised in terms of major, minor and trace elements, Sr–Nd isotopic compositions and 40Ar/39Ar ages. For correlation purposes, glass compositions and several new 40Ar/39Ar ages of selected proximal pyroclastic units spanning the same temporal interval from Vulsini (Latera Volcanic Complex), Sabatini, and Vico volcanic systems, central Italy, were measured. The late MIS 8-early MIS 6 Fucino tephras were backtracked to their corresponding volcanic sources, which include the Vulsini, Vico, Sabatini, Roccamonfina, Ischia and Campi Flegrei volcanic systems. While some of these tephras have been correlated to specific eruption units, other layers are currently not documented or described in near-vent sections, thus highlighting previously unrecognised events generated by these volcanic systems. Furthermore, the new high precision 40Ar/39Ar ages provide improved temporal constraints for Fucino making it one of the most detailed and chronologically best constrained tephra records for central Mediterranean MIS 7 tephrochronology. The Fucino record thus provides new integrative information for reconstructing the explosive history of Italian volcanoes during the investigated time interval. Furthermore, the geochronological constraints provide the basis for future paleoclimatic investigations at local and regional scale.

We present the geomorphological map of the northwestern part of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, where the landscape expresses the tectonic activity associated with the Arabia-Eurasia convergence and Neogene climate change. These processes influenced the evolution of landforms and fluvial pathways, where major rivers Tigris, Khabur, and Great Zab incise the landscape of Northeastern Mesopotamia Anticlinal ridges and syncline trough compose the Zagros orogen. The development of water and wind gaps, slope, and karsts processes in the highlands and the tilting of fluvial terraces in the flat areas are the main evidence of the relationship between tectonics, climate variations and geomorphological processes. During the Quaternary, especially after the Last Glacial Maximum, fluctuating arid and wet periods also influenced local landforms and fluvial patterns of the area. Finally, the intensified Holocene human occupation and agricultural activities during the passage to more complex societies over time impacted the evolution of the landscape in this part of Mesopotamia.

Identifying the hydrological and environmental response of the European Alpine region to different combinations of climate boundary conditions is crucial to advance the reliability of predictive climate models and thus shape climate adaptation policies that will impact millions of people in seven countries. Here we present a high-resolution multiproxy speleothem record (stable oxygen and carbon isotope ratios, petrography and magnetic properties) from Rio Martino Cave (Piedmont, Southern Alps, Italy), which covers the first part of the Penultimate Glacial (early MIS 6, 182–157 ka). During early MIS 6, the combination of high climatic precession and obliquity amplified the peak in Northern Hemisphere (NH) summer insolation intensity at ca. 174 ka to almost interglacial levels, leading to northward migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the enhancement of the boreal monsoon system. At orbital scale, the hydroclimatic record from Rio Martino closely follows the precession pattern, and shows a wet interstadial phase between 180 and 170 ka, peaking at the precession minimum, characterized by glacial retreat and by the likely development of soils and vegetation up to 1900–2000 m a.s.l. in this alpine sector. This phase can be traced across the Southern Alps, and corresponds to pluvial conditions inferred from Western Mediterranean records, and to the interval of deposition of the cold Sapropel S6 in the eastern Mediterranean. We suggest that the interaction between an intensified northwesterly cold flow (relating to increased ice volume under glacial conditions), and the relatively warm waters of the NW Mediterranean (due to the peculiar atmospheric configuration occurring at the precession minimum) strongly enhanced the autumn cyclogenesis in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea, fuelling intense precipitation to reach the Southern Alps. The Rio Martino record also shows a prominent sub-orbital variability, the overall structure of which is coherent with hemispheric changes in climate driven by cyclic perturbations of North Atlantic conditions related to the operation of the bipolar seesaw.