Canola meal (CM), a by-product of the canola oil extraction process, has exceeded initial production expectations, reaching 7.65 million tonnes in Australia in 2025/26. In 2025, Australia ranked fourth globally in canola production. Canola meal is a cost-effective and more sustainable alternative to soybean meal (SBM); however, high inclusion levels may negatively affect growth performance. Consequently, the commercial inclusion of CM in broiler diets is typically below 10%. The present study evaluated dietary strategies to mitigate such effects, including the use of feed additives such as pellet binder, glutamate, potassium iodide, and sodium metabisulfite, and high inclusion of L-methionine in diets formulated with higher-CM inclusions. CM inclusion at 14.0% in the grower phase and 18.0% in the finisher phase did not compromise growth performance and improved FCR during the 9-35 days post-hatch period, irrespective of feed additive supplementation, compared with a standard soybean meal-based diet (SSBM). Supplementation with higher L-methionine, sodium metabisulfite, or potassium iodide in high-canola meal diet (HCM) resulted in improved FCR than diets formulated with SSBM inclusions, particularly during the grower phase. Future research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying these additive effects. Overall, the present study demonstrated that CM inclusion can exceed typical inclusion limits in broiler diets, thereby enabling novel dietary strategies for sustainable chicken meat production in Australia.

The aim of this review is to describe nutrition strategies that may help to meet the ever-increasing global demand for chicken meat in a sustainable manner. This may include decreased reliance on imported feedstuffs through replacement of imported protein (e.g., soybean meal) with locally available alternatives such as canola or grain legumes, as well as a reduction in crude protein content in feeds through a precision use of amino acids and enzymatic supplements. Challenges, opportunities and research needs associated with alternative feed ingredients are illustrated, and potential risks or benefits to the health of birds, consumers and their environment are discussed. It is concluded that the long-term sustainability of chicken meat requires a multifactorial approach that relies on improved feed formulation practices based on use of local ingredients, reduced crude protein, optimizing feed processing (e.g., particle size), and use of feed additives (e.g., enzymes, synthetic amino acids, pre- and pro-biotics) whilst considering their impact on efficiency of production as well as animal, human and environmental health.

Introduction:Enhancing immune responsiveness against pathogens is crucial for maintaining health. In broiler chickens, the in ovo delivery of carvacrol, a phenolic compound found in oregano and thyme, has shown promising immunomodulatory activity. This study investigated the hypothesis that the in ovo delivery of carvacrol would regulate the immune response against Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in broiler chickens. Methods:In ovo carvacrol (injected at embryonic day 17.5) and/or E. coli LPS challenge (repeated intraperitoneal injections at post-hatching d7 and d14) were tested in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement, resulting in four groups: 1) in ovo saline without challenge (saline), 2) in ovo saline with LPS challenge, 3) in ovo carvacrol without challenge, and 4) in ovo carvacrol with LPS challenge. Performance parameters were collected, and relative organ weights were measured at d14. Splenic samples were collected 6 h after the second challenge (d14) and used for transcriptomic analyses. Results and Discussion:The LPS challenge resulted in lower chicken weight gain and higher relative spleen weight. The in ovo delivery of carvacrol had no impact on these measures. The transcriptomic comparisons for the effects of LPS challenge identified 786 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between groups 2 and 1 (without in ovo carvacrol) and 1,832 DEGs between groups 4 and 3 (with in ovo carvacrol) [false discovery rate (FDR)< 0.05, -0.5 > logFC > 0.5], primarily enriching inflammatory pathways (p< 0.01). The transcriptomic comparisons for the effects of in ovo carvacrol identified 89 DEGs between groups 3 and 1 and 720 DEGs between 4 and 2 (p< 0.05, -0.5 > logFC > 0.5). Functional analyses (4 vs. 2) showed that the in ovo delivery of carvacrol enriched pathways that can be related to T-cell activation at 6 h after LPS challenge, mainly influenced by the upregulation of DEGs encoding for cytokines and chemokines (p< 0.01). Overall, these findings suggest that the in ovo delivery of carvacrol may modulate immune responses toward an E. coli LPS challenge, specifically by upregulating the gene expression of cytokines, chemokines, and their receptors, persisting until at least 14 days post-hatching.

Acute appendicitis is one of the leading causes of surgical emergency hospitalizations. However, the mechanisms leading to the development of appendicitis are poorly understood. Current knowledge suggests an interplay probably led by dietary habits with impact on the microbiome which elicits responses in genetically predisposed individuals. The aim of this review is to assess the nutrition-microbiome-genetic axis associated with acute appendicitis development. The main dietary and nutritional patterns associated to acute appendicitis were low consumption of fibre, water and fish oil, and high levels of saturated fat, salt, processed meat and ultra-processed foods. Collectively, these westernized dietary patterns (WDP) may increase more than 40% the risk of developing acute appendicitis. The WDP are associated to shifts in the microbiome observed in inflamed appendices such as an increased abundance of Fusobacteria together with a lower level of Proteobacteria. While dietary patterns and associated changes in the microbiome may affect a large proportion of the population, only a relatively small percentage develop acute appendicitis suggesting the existence of predisposing genetic factors. Several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) have been identified linking nutrition and microbiome to the genetic background in acute appendicitis. These include the HLA-C SNP rs2524046, associated with coeliac disease, and the variant rs9953918 of NEDD4L (involved in fluid/water mobilization). A hypothetical allergy model for appendicitis has been recently proposed providing a preliminary groundwork that identifies SNPs in or near IL-6, IL-10 and IL-13, NOD2, CCL22 and CTLA4 involved in the pathogenesis of both inflammatory diseases.

Background/Objectives: Bitter taste perception is important for pig feeding behavior and survival. The type 2 taste receptors (T2Rs) are G protein-coupled receptors responsible for the sense of bitter taste perception in mammals. T2Rs are expressed in taste receptor cells located in the taste buds of the papillae of the tongue and in other tissues such as the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory epithelia, and immune system. In pigs, twelve T2R genes have previously been experimentally identified, although only a limited number of studies have investigated this gene family. We hypothesized that the full T2R gene repertoire in pigs has yet to be uncovered. Methods: Circumvallate papillae (CVP) were collected from 12 pigs, and a combination of bioinformatics analysis and experimental validation was used to identify and annotate T2R transcripts in the pig transcriptome. The CVP transcriptome was explored using reference-guided assembly to identify potential novel transcripts, and newly identified protein-coding transcripts were confirmed by PCR and Sanger sequencing. Results: The results confirmed significant expression of 10 of the 12 known T2Rs (3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 16, 20, 39, 41, and 60). Two novel T2R transcripts (ENSSSCT00000089410.2 and ENSSSCT00000091318.1) were discovered and referred to as T2R61 and T2R62. T2R62 contained larger exons than those annotated in the reference genome. The results also showed that porcine T2R20 is a member of the porcine T2R family highly similar to several human TAS2Rs, including TAS2R20 (TAS2R49). In total, the porcine T2R repository contains 14 transcripts supported by strong evidence. Conclusions: This study expands knowledge of the porcine T2R repertoire and provides insight into the genetic basis of taste perception, food selection, nutrition, and adaptation biology in pigs.

This study evaluated breast meat quality of broiler chickens following dietary inclusion of full-fat Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae (BSFL) sourced from three food-waste production sites in a nutritionally balanced diet. Broilers were fed diets containing 0%, 3%, 6%, or 9% BSFL sourced from 3 different facilities in a 3 × 4 factorial design. At 42 days of age, breast meat samples were collected for evaluation of physicochemical traits, chemical composition, amino acid, and fatty acid profiles. Inclusion of dietary BSFL had no adverse effects on key meat quality parameters, including water-holding capacity, pH, color, cooking loss, or shear force. Breast meat protein content increased significantly in broilers fed the 9% BSFL diet compared with the control, while essential amino acid composition remained unchanged across treatments. In contrast, BSFL inclusion substantially modified the fat profile of breast meat, characterized by enrichment of short- and medium-chain saturated fatty acids, increased eicosapentaenoic acid, reduced ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and an improved ω-3/ω-6 ratio. These results demonstrate that food-waste-derived full-fat BSFL can be incorporated into broiler diets at levels up to 9% without compromising breast meat quality, while enhancing its nutritional fat profile and protein content.

The appearance rate of nutrients into systemic circulation affects hormones like insulin and through that efficiency of growth.. This also affects mineral requirements critical for metabolism, notably phosphate (P), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K). Fasting animals have a downregulated metabolism, upon which P, Mg, and K are exported from their cells into the blood and are subsequently excreted in their urine. Abrupt resumption of feed intake, especially of highly glycemic feeds, creates an acute need for these minerals, which can result in deficiency symptoms, particularly with P deficiency. In human medicine, this is called refeeding syndrome: a large meal after a period of fasting can prove fatal. Young animals seem to be especially sensitive, likely driven by their ability to grow rapidly and thus to drastically upregulate their metabolism in response to insulin. Symptoms of P deficiency are fairly a-specific and, consequently, not often recognized. They include edema, which makes it appear as if piglets are growing well, explaining the high gain/feed rate typically seen immediately after weaning, even when piglets are eating at or below the maintenance requirements. Phosphate deficiency can also result in hypoxia and hypercarbia, which may trigger ear necrosis, Streptococcus suis infections, or even death. Hypophosphatemia can also trigger rhabdomyolysis, which may contribute to tail-biting, but this requires further study. Arguably, when fasting cannot be avoided, diets for newly weaned piglets should be formulated to avoid these problems by lowering their glycemic load and by formulating diets according to the piglets’ actual requirements inspired by their genuine intake and health and not simply by extrapolating from older animals.

The early post-hatching phase remains to be one of the most vulnerable phases in broiler production. Some essential oils have been reported to improve gut health and growth in broiler chickens when applied to post-hatching diets. However, in-feed applications are unable to prevent the health challenges observed immediately after hatching. Thus, pre-hatch interventions need to be considered. A research project was developed with the aim of investigating the impact of in ovo application of 27 selected essential oils (EOs) on foetal development with emphasis on gut integrity in broiler hatchlings. The eggs were incubated under standard conditions until day 17.5, when 1 mL of each EO preparation (5 µL EO + 5 µL polysorbate-80 + 990 µL saline) was injected into the amnion. Hatchability, body weight and organ weights (residual yolk, gizzard-proventriculus, intestines, liver, and heart) were measured at hatch. Five essential oils eugenol, clove, tea tree, lemongrass, and thyme, significantly (P < 0.05) reduced hatchability (66.67 %, 58.33, 83.30 and 83.30 %) compared to the saline (96.80 %), were discarded from the rest of the study. The other 22 essential oils were investigated in a second phase to assess their impact on expression of gut biomarkers including: a) jejunum integrity; b) digestive enzymes and nutrient transporters; and c) immune system. The results indicated that lemon myrtle significantly increased and oregano EO decreased body weight at hatch (BW0) compared to the saline (P < 0.05). Ylang ylang, clary sage, bergamot, lemon myrtle, and black pepper upregulated the expressions of biomarkers regulating gut integrity and barrier functions (ZO-1, ZO-2, CLDN1, MARVELD2, EGFR and EGF), nutrients transporters (EAAT3, PEPT1, I-FABP1, SGLT1), and digestive enzymes (APN, SI). Ylang ylang, turmeric acid, star anise, clary sage, and black pepper upregulated the expression of gut immunity biomarkers IL1B, IL10, IGMH, CD3D, and BU1 compared to the saline. In conclusion, in ovo delivery of selected EOs has the potential to improve embryonic development relevant to nutrient digestion and absorption, gut integrity and immunity in broilers.

Dietary bitter compounds such as caffeine have the potential to reduce backfat in pigs. However, the use of caffeine as a feed additive has restrictions in many countries. It was hypothesised that grape seed and gentian plant extracts (GG) could replace caffeine in feed due to their bitterness and antiadipogenic effects. The effect of caffeine (0.5 g/kg), GG (2 g/kg) alone or in combination with caffeine (BM) at increasing concentrations (0.5, 1, 1.5, or 2 g/kg) on feed efficiency, carcass, and meat quality was assessed in finishing pigs (Large White × Landrace). Growth performance and carcass traits were evaluated at a pen level (n = 14). Loins (longissimus thoracis) were removed from eight pig/treatment at the abattoir to assess drip loss, lightness (L*), redness (a*), yellowness (b*), chroma (C*), hue angle (h°), pH, cook loss, and shear force. A linear increase (p < 0.05) in loin a*, b*, and C* values and a linear decrease (p < 0.05) in ADFI, ADG, backfat, dressing percentage, and HSCW were observed with increasing BM levels. At 1.5 g/kg, BM increased the loins a* (p < 0.05), b* (p < 0.05) and C* values (p < 0.05) compared to the control. Twenty-two proteins related to energy metabolism and myofibril assembly were identified to be upregulated (FDR < 0.05) in BM vs. control loins. In conclusion, GG could be used in combination with low doses of caffeine to modulate appetite and carcass leanness and improve pork colour.

Accurate determination of metabolizable energy and ileal amino acid (AA) digestibility is essential for optimizing poultry diets, as they provide critical insights into the energy and AA availability of feed ingredients. This experiment was split into two phases to determine apparent metabolizable energy (AME), nitrogen-corrected AME (AMEn), apparent (AID), and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of AA for black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) produced on three different waste streams (A, H, L) as a protein-rich ingredient for broiler chickens. The AME and AMEn were determined using the substitution method in 14-day-old male broiler chickens, where two diets were formulated: a basal diet and a treatment diet. The basal diet was substituted by the test ingredient (BSFL) at 300 g/kg and fed to chickens for 7 days. The AME for BSFL-A, BSFL-H and BSFL-L were determined to be 23.14, 24.54 and 22.53 MJ/kg DM; and AMEn values were 22.95, 24.34 and 22.35, MJ/kg DM, respectively. The AME and AMEn values for BSFL streams were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those of SBM, which had values of 14.67 MJ/kg DM and 14.54 MJ/kg DM, respectively. The AA SID coefficents of BSFL products were determined in 21-d-old broilers using semi-purified diets (the direct method) fed to chickens for 3 days with the digesta being obtained on d 24. A nitrogen-free diet was used to estimate endogenous AA losses. The overall mean of the AID of AAs in BSFLs ranged from 86.75 % to 89.17 %, while the SID ranged from 86.77 % to 89.17 %. No significant differences were observed for the AA digestibility of BSFL products from different waste streams. The SID of lysine, methionine, threonine, and valine of BSFL samples ranged from 89.14 to 90.15 %, 88.66-90.02 %, 81.48-84.76 % and 87.38-90.01 %, respectively. Overall, the results showed that full-fat BSFL grown on food waste streams, are a valuable source of energy and digestible AAs for broiler chickens. Their high nutritive value and sustainability suggest strong potential to partially or fully replace conventional protein sources, such as soybean meal, in broiler feed formulations.

Pathogenic bacteria can inhabit the chicken intestinal tract and potentially cause disease and mortality in chickens. Proteinogenic amino acids are major nutrients available in the intestine that have diverse growth-modulating effects on bacteria. However, limited knowledge exists about the direct association between amino acids and the growth of bacteria in the microbiome of the chicken’s intestinal tract.The present study evaluated the growth-modulating effects of the 20 proteinogenic amino acids on chicken pathogens. Seven bacterial species were tested, including avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC), Salmonella enterica., Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens, Enterococcus cecorum, Enterococcus faecalis, and Enterococcus faecium. All bacteria were tested in minimal nutrient medium (MNM) in an in vitro model, with or without the addition of each amino acid. Bacterial growth was measured by absorbance (OD600) and visualised as growth curves.L-cysteine significantly (p ≤ 0.05) inhibited the growth of APEC, extended the lag phase and increased the maximum density of C. perfringens, Salmonella enterica. and S. aureus. In contrast, L-glutamine and L-glutamic acid significantly shortened the lag phase and increased both the growth rate and maximum density of C. perfringens, Glycine and L-serine significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the maximum density of S. aureus. The effect of amino acids was insignificant (p ≥ 0.05) on the total growth of Enterococcus spp.These findings suggested that L-cysteine has inhibiting effects on APEC, C. perfringens, S. enterica and S. aureus. L-glutamine and L-glutamic acid promoted the growth of C. perfringens, while glycine and L-serine promoted the growth of S. aureus.

BACKGROUND:Broiler chickens are most vulnerable immediately after hatching due to their immature immune systems, making them susceptible to infectious diseases. The yolk plays an important role in early immune defence by showing relevant antioxidant and passive immunity capabilities during broiler embryonic development. The immunomodulatory effects of phytogenic compound carvacrol have been widely reported. After in ovo delivery in the amniotic fluid during embryonic development carvacrol is known to migrate to the yolk sac. However, it is unknown whether carvacrol in the yolk could enhance defence responsiveness in the yolk sac. Therefore, the aim of this study was to improve early immune function in chicken embryos, and it was hypothesized that in ovo delivery of carvacrol would result in immunomodulatory effects in the yolk sac, potentially improving post-hatch resilience. METHODS:On embryonic day (E)17.5, either a saline (control) or carvacrol solution was injected into the amniotic fluid. Yolk sac tissue samples were collected at E19.5, and transcriptomic analyses using RNA sequencing were performed, following functional enrichment analyses comparing the control (saline) and carvacrol-injected groups. RESULTS:The results showed that 268 genes were upregulated and 174 downregulated in the carvacrol group compared to the control (P < 0.05; logFC < -0.5 or log FC > 0.5). Functional analyses of these differentially expressed genes, using KEGG, REACTOME, and Gene Ontology databases, showed enrichment of several immune-related pathways. This included the pathways 'Antimicrobial peptides' (P = 0.001) and 'Chemoattractant activity' (P = 0.004), amongst others. Moreover, the 'NOD-like receptor signaling' pathway was enriched (P = 0.002). Antimicrobial peptides are part of the innate immune defence and are amongst the molecules produced after the nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor pathway activation. While these responses may be associated with an inflammatory reaction to an exogenous threat, they could also indicate that in ovo delivery of carvacrol could prepare the newly hatched chick against bacterial pathogens by potentially promoting antimicrobial peptide production through activation of NOD-like receptor signaling in the yolk sac. CONCLUSION:In conclusion, these findings suggest that in ovo delivery of carvacrol has the potential to enhance anti-pathogenic and pro-inflammatory responses in the yolk sac via upregulation of antimicrobial peptides, and NOD-like receptor pathways.

The post-hatching period in chickens is marked by the transition in nutrient source from the endogenous liquid yolk to exogenous solid feed, and the vulnerability to environmental pathogens underscoring the importance of an early development of the digestive and immune systems. This review explores innovative strategies to address these challenges, including developmental programming through broiler breeder interventions, and in ovo applications. Developmental programming mechanisms evolved as evolutionary strategies to optimize the survival of future generations in anticipation of environmental challenges including nutritional scarcity. These may involve chemosensory pathways influenced by dietary volatile compounds (VOCs) becoming one of the main factors determining feeding behaviour and appetite immediately after hatch. Dietary VOCs are transferred from the breeder diet to the fertile egg, shaping innate food preferences in the next generation. Other plant functional compounds include essential oils (EO) which are also partially transferable to the developing embryo with functional activities relevant to gut health in chickens. Carvacrol (the main active compound in oregano EO) can be supplemented through breeder diets to influence embryonic development. A systematic study on in ovo applications of EO identified compounds enhancing embryonic growth and the development of the digestive and immune systems. Changes in the pH of egg compartments (particularly albumen and yolk) respond to the metabolism of the developing embryo. These compartments show a high buffering capacity required for a tight control of the pH. The in ovo application of organic acids has the potential of changing compartmental pH and modulate enzymatic activities. Thus, it is possible to control nutrient release by controlling pH dynamics. Several of the environmental effects on developmental biology involve epigenetic mechanisms. A review of current epigenetic modifications relevant to chicken embryonic and post-hatch development has been outlined. In summary, this review highlights trans- or inter-generational mechanisms and novel in ovo strategies that have the potential to improve post-hatch robustness in chickens.

The broiler chickens’ immune system fully develops a few weeks after hatching, leaving them susceptible to disease during the early post-hatching phase. This study investigated effects of in ovo delivery of carvacrol on the expression of immune-related genes following an Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge at d7 post-hatch. The experiment was designed as a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with two in ovo treatments (saline or carvacrol) and two LPS challenged groups (yes or no): (1) saline + no challenge (control), (2) saline + LPS, (3) carvacrol + no challenge, (4) carvacrol + LPS. Hatchability and performance parameters were determined before, and organ weights after the LPS challenge. Immune-related gene expression was assessed in the jejunum and spleen post-challenge. At d7, the carvacrol-treated group had lower FI (Δ11 g, P = 0.02) compared to the saline group. In the jejunum, a significant interaction (P = 0.003) was found between in ovo treatment and LPS challenge for IFN-γ expression, which was highest in the saline + LPS and carvacrol + no challenge groups. Carvacrol delivery resulted in lower IL-8 (P = 0.03) and IκB (P = 0.04) expression, regardless of LPS challenge. In the spleen, a significant interaction (P = 0.03) showed that carvacrol downregulated expression of pro-inflammatory IL-1β, observed in the saline + LPS group. For NF-κB and TLR4, LPS challenge did not affect saline-treated chickens, but lowered expression of these genes in carvacrol-treated chickens (P = 0.03 and 0.02, respectively). IFN-γ expression did not differ between in ovo delivery treatments after LPS challenge but was higher (P = 0.02) in the carvacrol-treated chickens than in the saline-treated chickens for the non-challenged groups. These findings indicate an anti-inflammatory effect of in ovo carvacrol delivery by inhibiting LPS-induced downregulation of NF-κB and mitigating IL-1β and TNF-α expression. Carvacrol stimulated IFN-γ expression, potentially modulating adaptive immune responses. In conclusion, in ovo carvacrol delivery could mitigate release of key inflammatory cytokines, while increasing IFN-γ.

Exogenous enzymes are used in animal feed formulations to enhance starch digestion in milled grains, but the effect of grain type and the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. This study compared the effect of three commercial in-feed exogenous enzymes (phytase, protease and xylanase/glucanase) and their combination on starch digestion of milled barley, wheat and maize in an in vitro model. Xylanase/glucanase enhanced starch digestion the most in barley and wheat, while phytase had the largest effect in maize. In each case exogenous enzymes showed greater enhancement of starch digestion for larger grain particles (1.18-2.36 mm). Microscopy showed that xylanase/glucanase treatment reduced cell wall encapsulation of starch for all three grains, suggesting that cell wall encapsulation is not rate-limiting for starch digestion of milled maize. Supplementing phytase in milled maize suppressed the loss of pancreatic amylase activity during small intestinal digestion in vitro. This provides a possible mechanism for the observed enhancement of starch digestion by phytase in grains. The data shows how the effects of enzyme treatment on starch digestion depends on the milled grain source and particle size, and that both de-encapsulation and protection of amylase activity can result in enhanced starch digestion.

Acute Appendicitis (AA) is an inflammatory condition of the vermiform appendix in the caecum of the colon. Genetic polymorphisms have been suggested as risk factors predisposing to AA susceptibility but have remained relatively unknown, due to insufficient sample size in previous analyses. Therefore, the primary research aim was to identify genetic variants associated with AA. It was hypothesised that gene polymorphisms associated with AA will provide a connection to other diet-related inflammatory diseases. Genetic variants associated with AA were studied via a Genome-Wide Association Scan (GWAS) using the Global Biobank Meta-Analysis Initiative (GBMI). The GBMI is a collaborative consortium of 23 biobanks with a publicly released repository of de-identified genetic data linked with digital health records spanning 4 continents with a study population size of over 2.2 million consented individuals of multiple ancestral backgrounds1. A linear regression model was used to estimate the association between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), across the human genome, and AA by each contributing biobank. The results were then meta-analysed with a total of 32,706 cases and 1,075,763 controls. In the present study, the free open-source Complex Traits Genetic Virtual Lab (CTG-VL) platform was used to access, analyse, and visualise the GWAS summary statistics of AA2. Genome-wide significantly associated SNPs (p-value < 5 x 10-8) were further searched for their associations with health-related traits in publicly available GWAS summary statistics. Upon analysis, significantly associated SNPs for AA were identified within or nearby nine genes. HLX, NKX2-3, LTBR, and DLEU1 are genes involved in immune responses; IRF8 associated with maturation of myeloid cells; OSR-1 responsible for transmembrane ion transporter activity; NCALD a regulator of G protein-coupled signal transduction. In addition, based on the hypothesis, the SNP of key clinical importance was the HLA-C rs2524046 (p-value = 2.38 x 10-8), with the AA risk-increasing allele C being also strongly associated with a higher risk of coeliac disease (CD). The CD is an autoimmune condition where gluten, a protein present in grains such as barley, rye, and wheat, elicits an inflammatory response that results in damage to the small intestine lining. Considering how both AA and CD share the same SNP, it is possible to speculate whether gluten initiates a similar pathophysiological mechanism that exacerbates inflammation in the vermiform appendix in AA. In conclusion, the top AA associated SNPs suggests its development could be due to immunological responses influenced by dietary nutrient intake. The HLA-C SNP is common to AA and CD, suggesting that the gluten protein found in certain cereal grains possibly contributes to the pathophysiology of AA like CD. This warrants further investigations into whether dietary gluten could play a key role in AA development.

This study was conducted to investigate and compare the effects of substituting soybean meal (SBM) with untreated cottonseed meal (CSM), fermented CSM (FCSM), or electron beam-irradiated CSM (ICSM) on the growth performance, cecal microbiota, digestive enzyme activity, apparent ileal digestibility (AID), and excreta gas emission of broiler chickens. A total of 384 one-day-old male broiler chickens were randomly assigned to four experimental diets, with eight replicates per diet and 12 birds per replicate, for six weeks. The experimental diets consisted of a control diet based on corn–SBM and three other diets in which 50% of the SBM (control) was substituted with CSM in its raw, irradiated, and fermented forms. The results showed that throughout the entire rearing period, feeding broiler chickens with ICSM significantly increased average daily gain (ADG) and body weight (BW) compared to the CSM diet (p < 0.05). Replacing 50% of SBM with FCSM led to a significant improvement in BW, ADG, and feed conversion ratio (FCR) compared to the CSM and ICSM diets (p < 0.05). Interestingly, no significant differences in BW, ADG, or FCR were observed between birds fed FCSM and those on the control diet (p > 0.05). Birds fed FCSM diets exhibited the lowest pH value in the crop, ileum, and ceca. Substituting SBM with FCSM significantly reduced Escherichia coli and Clostridium spp. counts in the ceca, while enhancing the presence of Lactobacillus spp. (p < 0.05). The AID of protein and ether extract was higher in the FCSM group than in the CSM and ICSM groups (p < 0.05). Compared to the CSM diet, ICSM feeding improved protein digestibility (p < 0.05). Broiler chickens on the FCSM diet exhibited higher intestinal amylase and protease activity than those on the other diets (p < 0.05). Furthermore, feeding diets containing FCSM significantly reduced ammonia emissions compared to the other diets (p < 0.05). Overall, our results indicated that microbial fermentation of CSM is a more effective approach than irradiation for enhancing the nutritional value of CSM. Therefore, FCSM is recommended as a viable alternative protein source that can safely replace up to 50% of SBM in broiler chicken diets, particularly during times of fluctuating SBM prices and availability issues.

Gelatin has played a great potential in food preservation because of its low price and superior film forming characteristics. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the latest research progress and application of gelatin preservation technologies (film, coating, antifreeze peptide, etc.), discussing their preservation mechanisms and efficiency through the viewpoints of quality and shelf life of animal and aquatic products as well as fruits and vegetables. It showed that bioactive and intelligent gelatin-based films exhibit antibacterial, antioxidant, water resistance and pH responsive properties, making them excellent for food preservation. In addition, pH responsive properties of films also intuitively reflect the freshness of food by color. Similarly, gelatin and its hydrolysate can be widely used in antifreeze peptides to reduce the mass loss of food during freezing and extend the shelf life of frozen food. However, extensive works are still required to extend their commercial application values.