Background : Successful epidemic preparedness and response require an understanding of social behaviour: social values, priorities and practices fundamentally shape human engagements with measures to prepare for and to prevent epidemics and antimicrobial resistance. Because of its capacity to document and evaluate health-seeking behaviors, local understandings of disease and explanations of transmission, and local reactions to public health interventions, social science, in particular anthropological research is well positioned to facilitate insight into these priorities and practices. Method : The SoNAR-Global project (A Social Science Network for Infectious Threats and Antimicrobial Resistance) undertook a mapping and assessment of existing Community Engagement (CE) models that target infectious threats and/or antimicrobial resistance (AMR) Bangladesh, Uganda and Ukraine, which are integrated in the project through partner universities. We compared our findings with the UNICEF Communication for Development (C4D) Minimum Quality Standards for Community Engagement. Conclusions : On these grounds, we emphasize six critical elements for Community Engagement before and during epidemics. We argue that CE efforts must cooperate and dialogue with people in need and negotiate integrated, localized public health models that improve their lives before and during an epidemic. Results : We identified and recommend currently available social science tools for Community Engagement, which correspond to the six critical elements and can contribute to enhance preparedness and response activities to infectious threats.

IntroductionThis protocol will guide and explain the working process of a systematic scoping review on vulnerability assessment tools in the field of infectious disease outbreaks and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) crises. The scoping review will appraise existing tools or methodologies to identify local level vulnerabilities in the context of infectious disease outbreaks and AMR. Due to this focus on infectious threats and AMR, the review also considers articles using a ‘One Health’ approach to assess the vulnerability of individuals, groups and practices in human–animal–environment interactions. Given the broad nature of vulnerability, we aim to allocate studies discerning the process of identifying vulnerable or at-risk groups during a crisis, instead of studies taking vulnerability only as a starting point. Because considerable research has been conducted on vulnerability, disasters and climate change, we will also assemble tools developed from these fields. To our knowledge, this is the first planned systematic scoping review of vulnerability assessment tools for disease outbreaks and AMR, taking into account practices at the human–animal–environment interface that can lead to increased risk of exposure of individuals to infections, pathogen spillovers or epidemics.Methods and analysisTo develop the protocol, we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols checklist (PRISMA-P 2015) in compliance with the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews Explanation and Elaboration. With the assistance of an experienced research librarian, we developed the search strategy, which targeted the following databases: Medline, Global Health database, Web of Science and Embase. A second strategy was developed for Epistemonikos, African Journals Online and Global Index Medicus because these databases do not provide the infrastructure for an advanced search. We consider studies published between 1978 and 2019 and include articles, book chapters, websites and grey literature from selected non-governmental organisations and non-profit organisations working in the health field. We contact them directly regarding whether they are working with or have developed a vulnerability assessment tool. To address the dynamic nature of our investigation, we develop a flow diagram which we continually update to reflect the selection process. Two reviewers (MJ and LL) independently screen the literature and resolve conflicts through discussion rounds. Data extraction will be conducted by four researchers (MJ, LL, EJ and RK) through inductive and deductive coding. Extracted data will be systematically compared and divergences highlighted.Ethics and disseminationEthical approval is not required because this study does not involve collection of primary data. The purpose of this review is to disseminate a catalogue of vulnerability assessment tools and a brief summary of key results and recommendations for SoNAR-Global partners in Bangladesh, Ukraine and Uganda. The catalogue will be made publicly available. On the basis of our results, SoNAR-Global partners will pilot one of these tools.

Background: There is high variation in service utilization behaviour, health equity and outcomes among countries based upon the organization of access to primary and secondary care levels. Austria is a country with universal health coverage and access without clear delineation between access to primary and secondary care. The aim of this study was to investigate development of access points to the Austrian system over time and subsequent utilization. Methods: The databases used were the Austrian Health Interview Surveys 2006/2007 and 2014, including 15 747 and 15 771 persons, respectively. Descriptive analysis of health services utilization behaviour and demographic factors were conducted. Logistic regression models were applied. Furthermore, differences between the two periods are shown. Result: Utilization of all services assessed was high in 2014 when compared to 2006/2007. Between these periods, a 6-7% increase in use of secondary care services was found. There was a 10.8% increase in access to specialist care services and 4.1% increase in hospital outpatient visits, each without prior General Practitioner (GP) visits. The largest increases were found in those groups that had previously demonstrated the lowest utilization behaviour of accessing specialist consultations and consultations without a prior GP visit. Conclusion: Despite the lack of change to the health care system or access to care, there was an increase in utilization of secondary care services, with a lower percentage of patients seeking direct GP consultation. This is concerning for systems development, cost containment and quality of care, as it demonstrates a possible trend shifting away from primary care as initial access point.

In 2015, local wars, starvation and misery in some Middle Eastern, Asian and African countries forced millions of people to leave their homelands. Many of these people migrated toward Europe, reaching Hungary as well. The refugee crisis created significant challenges for all national healthcare systems across Europe. Limited attention has been given to the extent to which health service provision for refugees and migrants has become a task for primary health care (PHC), which has been unprepared as a profession and pressured by the enormous workload. Hungarian primary care was involved only to an extent in the refugees' health care, as most of the migrants entering Hungary wanted to move forward to other countries. The need for evidence-based patient-centred interventions to assess refugee healthcare needs, and for training programmes for rapid capacity-building for integrated PHC was addressed by the EUropean Refugees - HUman Movement and Advisory Network (EUR-HUMAN) project, which 7 European countries developed together. The overall aim of the EUR-HUMAN project is to enhance the knowledge and expertise of European member states who accept refugees and migrants in addressing their health needs, safeguarding them from risks, while at the same time to minimize cross-border health risks. This initiative focuses on addressing the early arrival period, transition and longer-term settlement of refugees in European host countries. A primary objective of this project is to identify, design and assess interventions to improve PHC delivery for refugees and migrants with a focus on vulnerable groups. The structure, the main focus and outputs of the project are described and summarized in this paper, providing relevant information and access to educational materials for Hungarian (primary care) physicians. The EUR-HUMAN project was operated in 2016 under the auspices of the European Commission and funded by the Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency (CHAFEA). Orv Hetil. 2018; 159(35): 1414-1422.

Ruth Kutalek and colleagues share their Perspective on Kipruto Chesang and colleagues' qualitative study of beliefs and practices among healthcare providers managing STIs in Kenya and discuss the value of this type of research for addressing biosocial challenges.

The current political crisis, conflicts and riots in many Middle Eastern and African countries have led to massive migration waves towards Europe. European countries, receiving these migratory waves as first port of entry (POE) over the past few years, were confronted with several challenges as a result of the sheer volume of newly arriving refugees. This humanitarian refugee crisis represents the biggest displacement crisis of a generation. Although the refugee crisis created significant challenges for all national healthcare systems across Europe, limited attention has been given to the role of primary health care (PHC) to facilitate an integrated delivery of care by enhancing care provision to refugees upon arrival, on transit or even for longer periods. Evidence-based interventions, encompassing elements of patient-centredness, shared decision-making and compassionate care, could contribute to the assessment of refugee healthcare needs and to the development and the implementation of training programmes for rapid capacity-building for the needs of these vulnerable groups and in the context of integrated PHC care. This article reports on methods used for enhancing PHC for refugees through rapid capacity-building actions in the context of a structured European project under the auspices of the European Commission and funded under the 3rd Health Programme by the Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency (CHAFEA). The methods include the assessment of the health needs of all the people reaching Europe during the study period, and the identification, development, and testing of educational tools. The developed tools were evaluated following implementation in selected European primary care settings.

The refugee crisis has resulted in massive waves of migration towards Europe. Besides sufficient and appropriate healthcare services, these vulnerable populations need kindness, respect, acceptance, empathy, and attention to basic needs. Healthcare professionals ought to have a respectful and compassionate approach to safeguard the dignity and interests of the people they care for.

Abstract: In 2015, local wars, starvation and misery in some Middle Eastern, Asian and African countries forced millions of people to leave their homelands. Many of these people migrated toward Europe, reaching Hungary as well. The refugee crisis created significant challenges for all national healthcare systems across Europe. Limited attention has been given to the extent to which health service provision for refugees and migrants has become a task for primary health care (PHC), which has been unprepared as a profession and pressured by the enormous workload. Hungarian primary care was involved only to an extent in the refugees’ health care, as most of the migrants entering Hungary wanted to move forward to other countries. The need for evidence-based patient-centred interventions to assess refugee healthcare needs, and for training programmes for rapid capacity-building for integrated PHC was addressed by the EUropean Refugees – HUman Movement and Advisory Network (EUR-HUMAN) project, which 7 European countries developed together. The overall aim of the EUR-HUMAN project is to enhance the knowledge and expertise of European member states who accept refugees and migrants in addressing their health needs, safeguarding them from risks, while at the same time to minimize cross-border health risks. This initiative focuses on addressing the early arrival period, transition and longer-term settlement of refugees in European host countries. A primary objective of this project is to identify, design and assess interventions to improve PHC delivery for refugees and migrants with a focus on vulnerable groups. The structure, the main focus and outputs of the project are described and summarized in this paper, providing relevant information and access to educational materials for Hungarian (primary care) physicians. The EUR-HUMAN project was operated in 2016 under the auspices of the European Commission and funded by the Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency (CHAFEA). Orv Hetil. 2018; 159(35): 1414–1422.

Background: The ongoing refugee crisis has revealed the need for enhancing primary health care (PHC) professionals’ skills and training. Objectives: The aim was to strengthen PHC professionals in European countries in the provision of high-quality care for refugees and migrants by offering a concise modular training that was based on the needs of the refugees and PHC professionals as shown by prior research in the EUR-HUMAN project. Methods: We developed, piloted, and evaluated an online capacity building course of 8 stand-alone modules containing information about acute health issues of refugees, legal issues, provider–patient communication and cultural aspects of health and illness, mental health, sexual and reproductive health, child health, chronic diseases, health promotion, and prevention. The English course template was translated into seven languages and adapted to the local contexts of six countries. Pre- and post-completion knowledge tests were administered to effectively assess the progress and knowledge increase of participants so as to issue CME certificates. An online evaluation survey post completion was used to assess the acceptability and practicability of the course from the participant perspective. These data were analyzed descriptively. Results: A total of 390 participants registered for the online course in 6 countries with 175 completing all modules of the course, 47.7 % of them medical doctors. The mean time for completion was 10.77 hours. In total, 123 participants completed the online evaluation survey; the modules on acute health needs, legal issues (both 44.1%), and provider–patient communication/cultural issues (52.9%) were found particularly important for the daily practice. A majority expressed a will to promote the online course among their peers. Conclusion: This course is a promising learning tool for PHC professionals and when relevant supportive conditions are met. The course has the potential to empower PHC professionals in their work with refugees and other migrants.

In 2015, local wars, starvation and misery in some Middle Eastern, Asian and African countries forced millions of people to leave their homelands. Many of these people migrated toward Europe, reaching Hungary as well. The refugee crisis created significant challenges for all national healthcare systems across Europe. Limited attention has been given to the extent to which health service provision for refugees and migrants has become a task for primary health care (PHC), which has been unprepared as a profession and pressured by the enormous workload. Hungarian primary care was involved only to an extent in the refugees’ health care, as most of the migrants entering Hungary wanted to move forward to other countries. The need for evidence-based patient-centred interventions to assess refugee healthcare needs, and for training programmes for rapid capacity-building for integrated PHC was addressed by the EUropean Refugees – HUman Movement and Advisory Network (EUR-HUMAN) project, which 7 European countries developed together. Aim and methods The overall aim of the EUR-HUMAN project is to enhance the knowledge and expertise of European member states who accept refugees and migrants in addressing their health needs, safeguarding them from risks, while at the same time to minimize cross-border health risks. This initiative focuses on addressing the early arrival period, transition and longer-term settlement of refugees in European host countries. A primary objective of this project is to identify, design and assess interventions to improve PHC delivery for refugees and migrants with a focus on vulnerable groups. The structure, the main focus and outputs of the project are described and summarized in this paper, providing relevant information and access to educational materials for Hungarian (primary care) physicians. The EUR-HUMAN project was operated in 2016 under the auspices of the European Commission and funded by the Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency (CHAFEA).

Background:In order to provide effective primary care for refugees and to develop interventions tailored to them, we must know their needs. Little is known of the health needs and experiences of recently arrived refugees and other migrants throughout their journey through Europe. We aimed to gain insight into their health needs, barriers in access and wishes regarding primary health care.Methods:In the spring of 2016, we conducted a qualitative, comparative case study in seven EU countries in a centre of first arrival, two transit centres, two intermediate-stay centres and two longer-stay centres using a Participatory Learning and Action research methodology. A total of 98 refugees and 25 healthcare workers participated in 43 sessions. Transcripts and sessions reports were coded and thematically analyzed by local researchers using the same format at all sites; data were synthesized and further analyzed by two other researchers independently.Results:The main health problems of the participants related to war and to their harsh journey like common infections and psychological distress. They encountered important barriers in accessing healthcare: time pressure, linguistic and cultural differences and lack of continuity of care. They wish for compassionate, culturally sensitive healthcare workers and for more information on procedures and health promotion.Conclusion:Health of refugees on the move in Europe is jeopardized by their bad living circumstances and barriers in access to healthcare. To address their needs, healthcare workers have to be trained in providing integrated, compassionate and cultural competent healthcare.

BACKGROUND:There are many health professionals from abroad working in the European Union and in Austria. The situation of sub-Saharan health workers in particular has now been studied for the first time. The objective was to explore their reasons for migration to Austria, as well as their personal experiences concerning the living and working situation in Austria.METHODS:We conducted semi-structured, qualitative interviews with African health workers. They were approached via professional networks and a snowball system. The interviews were transcribed and analysed using atlas.ti.RESULTS:For most of our participants, the decision to migrate was not professional but situation dependent. Austria was not their first choice as a destination country. Several study participants left their countries to improve their overall working situation. The main motivation for migrating to Austria was partnership with an Austrian citizen. Other immigrants were refugees. Most of the immigrants found the accreditation process to work as a health professional to be difficult and hindering. This resulted in some participants not being able to work in their profession, while others were successful in their profession or in related fields. There have been experiences of discrimination, but also positive support.CONCLUSIONS:Austria is not an explicit target country for health workers from sub-Saharan Africa. Most of the study participants experienced bad work and study conditions in their home countries, but they are in Austria mostly because of personal connections. The competencies of those who are here are not fully utilised. The major reason is Austria's current resident and work permit regulations concerning African citizens. In addition, the accreditation process and the German language appear to be barriers.

Background: This study aimed to identify associations between GP patient's knowledge about the spectrum of effectiveness of antibiotics and the probability of vaccination against influenza. The underlying hypothesis was that individuals with an understanding that antibiotics are ineffective against viruses, common colds, and flu were more likely to be vaccinated than persons lacking this knowledge.Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted within the context of the European APRES project in Austria. Between November 2010 and July 2011, patients were recruited from GP practices to complete questionnaires about their knowledge about antibiotics and their influenza vaccination status. Statistical analyses included subgroup analyses and logistic regression models.Results: Data of 3224 patients was analyzed, demonstrating that patients with better knowledge concerning antibiotics had a significantly higher likelihood of being vaccinated (OR 1.35, CI 95 % 1.18-1.54). While the overall vaccination rate was low (18.6 % in 2009/2010 and 14.0 % in 2010/2011), elderly compared to younger adults (OR 0.06 CI 95 % 0.03-0.13) and healthcare workers (OR 2.24, CI 95 % 1.42-3.54) demonstrated higher likelihood of vaccination. Additionally, female GPs had significantly more vaccinated patients than male GPs (OR 2.90, CI 95 % 1.32-6.40).Discussion: There has been little prior study on the association between a patient's knowledge of the effectiveness spectrum of antibiotics and influenza vaccination status. Given the public health imperative to increase annual prevalence of influenza vaccination, understanding this educational gap can improve specificity in counseling as well as vaccination rates. Ultimately, we found that those with a better knowledge on about antibiotics had a significantly higher likelihood of being vaccinated.Conclusions: The results of this study demonstrate that vaccination prevalence is associated with patient's knowledge about antibiotics. It can be concluded that one strategy to improve the overall low vaccination rates for seasonal influenza in Austria would be, particularly for male GPs, to have a specific discussion with patients about these circumstances by focusing on younger patients. Further, public health efforts could supplement in-office strategies to improve this area of health literacy.

Background Many studies have investigated the migration intentions of sub-Saharan African medical students and health professionals within the context of a legacy of active international recruitment by receiving countries. However, many health workers migrate outside of this recruitment paradigm. This paper aims to explore the reasons for migration of health workers from sub-Saharan Africa to Belgium and Austria; European countries without a history of active recruitment in sub-Saharan Africa. Methods Data were collected using semistructured interviews. Twenty-seven health workers were interviewed about their migration experiences. Included participants were born in sub-Saharan Africa, had trained as health workers in sub-Saharan Africa, and were currently living in Belgium or Austria, though not necessarily currently working as a health professional. Results Both Austria and Belgium were shown not to be target countries for the health workers, who instead moved there by circumstance, rather than choice. Three principal reasons for migration were reported: 1) educational purposes; 2) political instability or insecurity in their country of origin; and 3) family reunification. In addition, two respondents mentioned medical reasons and, although less explicit, economic factors were also involved in several of the respondents' decision to migrate. Conclusion These results highlight the importance of the broader economic, social, and political context within which migration decisions are made. Training opportunities proved to be an important factor for migration. A further development and upgrade of primary care might help to counter the common desire to specialize and improve domestic training opportunities.

This paper is about how female circumcision/female genital mutilation (FC/FGM) was viewed by women and men aged 18–89 in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, now that it has been against the law for almost 15 years. The findings come from 11 months of field research, participant observation and interviews in 2008. The practice of FC/FGM was an important issue in Bobo-Dioulasso, even though prevalence seems to be falling. The most important argument for continuing it was not a traditional role, but the need to control female sexuality – regarded as very active – not to negate it, but to ensure morally acceptable behaviour. When I talked about female genital cosmetic surgery it emerged that Bobolaise women used various substances to enhance sexual pleasure for men, both to keep the relationship and to protect the gifts and money many women needed to survive and for their children. FC/FGM was seen as a socio-cultural obligation, necessary to achieve a respectable status. Other forms of genital modification were seen as a means of satisfying male sexual needs, though vaginal tightening to hide sexual experience was also a way of demonstrating respectability. What emerged overall is that Bobolaises had their own perspectives about all the forms of female genital modification that were discussed.