Knowledge of plant disease distribution and severity is fundamental to crop science, enabling precise, data-driven decisions that reduce agricultural losses, optimize chemical inputs, and enhance food security. Cropping system diversity, cultivars, and geographic regions influence pathogen aggressiveness maintenance and disease patterns. Studying these effects helps deepen our understanding of plant–pathogen interactions within agricultural systems. The theory that plant disease incidence is influenced by host biodiversity, spatial structure, and cropping systems has been strongly supported in the literature. However, our understanding of how these factors influence the Pseudocercospora fijiensis–banana pathosystem in banana and plantain production systems in southern Benin remains limited. In this study, we assessed black Sigatoka incidence and severity in 114 subsistence banana and plantain farming systems across 17 districts in southern Benin, West Africa. We evaluated the pathogenicity of 189 P. fijiensis isolates collected from leaf samples exhibiting black Sigatoka symptoms under greenhouse conditions. Finally, we mapped pathogen aggressiveness based on artificial inoculation screening data. Disease incidence in banana subsistence farming systems varied according to banana subgroup and cropping system type. We found that dessert banana–based monoculture systems were slightly more susceptible to pathogen attack; however, overall, plantain cultivars across the different systems tended to be more resistant to P. fijiensis. Aggressiveness varied substantially among the tested P. fijiensis isolates, with less aggressive isolates exhibiting longer incubation times. In contrast, most isolates showed higher aggressiveness and shorter incubation times. These findings provide novel insights into the epidemiology of banana and plantain production systems in Benin and are essential for informing recommendations and practical actions for farmers.

Understanding diversity in agricultural practices of plantain (\textit{Musa} AAB) cultivation is crucial for recommendations to increase yield and food security. Whereas in Benin, the diversity of agricultural practices among smallholder plantain-based farms in banana production areas is tittle characterised and information on the subject is less available and little disseminated. The purpose of this study was to identify existing diversity in plantain cultivation among smallholder farms. The study was carried out in five municipalities (Adja-Ouèrè, Athiémé, Tori-Bossito, Ouinhi and Zè) in the Benin Republic. Data were collected from 432 farmers through interviews targeting characteristics that evidenced differences in agricultural practices. The majority of farmers (96 %) grew native varieties while the remaining used imported ones. Suckers were supplied from their own plantations (36 %) or from neighbours for free (60 %) or purchase from fellow farmers (4 %). Intercropping was practiced by 66 % of the farmers with plantain-taro being the dominant practice (26 %). De-leafing, de-suckering and staking practices were respectively applied by 7 %, 6 % and 62 % of the respondents. Watering during dry weather was not a common practice in the study areas, while manure and/or mineral fertiliser was applied by 19 % of the farmers. Almost half of the respondents (45.8 %) were aware of the physical changes and damages on plantain tree, but did not relate those changes to the symptoms of pests and diseases. Strategies for controlling those pests and diseases were applied by only 4 % of the respondents, and entailed application of synthetic pesticides or following local practices such as spreading ash. The poor rate of good agricultural practices by the surveyed farmers is an indicator that justifies the low productivity in plantain based systems in Benin. This also makes it possible to design strategies including production of healthy planting materials and the scaling of agroforestry based on fast growing species in order to proper address pest constraints in plantain production.

RÉSUMÉ Objectifs : La présente étude vise à comparer les techniques de production de semences de soja dans les communes de Dassa-Zoumè, Glazoué et Savalou. L’objectif est de développer un outil d’aide à la décision pour des interventions et appuis pertinents et spécifiques auprès des producteurs aux caractéristiques et besoins parfois distincts. Méthodologie et Résultats : Des entretiens semi-structurés sur base de questionnaires ont été conduits auprès quarante-trois (43) agriculteurs multiplicateurs de semence de soja, suivis des visites des parcelles de multiplication des semences certifiées de soja. Les données qualitatives et quantitatives collectées auprès ont été éditées, codées et analysées à l'aide de feuilles de calcul Excel et du Logiciel XLSTAT version 7.5.Il ressort des résultats que l’unique variété multipliée était TGX 1910-14F. Les multiplicateurs de Glazoué étaient les plus expérimentés avec une moyenne de 4,42±2,90 ans et obtiennent les meilleurs rendements (1,73±0,37 t/ha). Le labour à plat est pratiqué uniquement par les producteurs (9,30 %) de Dassa-Zoumè et de Savalou. Concernant la gestion de l’enherbement, la majorité (74,41 %) des semenciers enquêtés font recours aux herbicides. Il est à noter que dans la zone d’étude, aucun produit phytosanitaire n’est utilisé dans la lutte contre les nuisibles du soja. Les principales contraintes énumérées sont relatives aux aléas climatiques (retard des pluies, mauvaise répartition des pluies) le manque de main d’œuvre, le retard dans l’approvisionnement des intrants (inoculum, semence) ainsi que le retard de paiement des producteurs et la difficulté du semis. Conclusion et applications des résultats : Un engagement soutenu est donc requis de la part des organisations des producteurs pour un plaidoyer et lobbying allant dans le sens de la recherche de solutions au retard de paiement et de mise à disposition tardive des semences et de l’inoculum ; toutes choses qui permettraient d’améliorer la performance de l’ensemble de la filière. De plus, tout projet ou programme visant à professionnaliser le secteur semencier gagnerait à former et à prioriser le rôle des agriculteurs-multiplicateurs dans le système semencier. Mots clés : Soja, semence, pratiques culturales, contraintes, Centre du Bénin 20553 Togbe et al., J. Appl. Biosci. Vol: 194, 2024 Analyse comparative des pratiques culturales en production semencière de soja (Glycine max (L.) Merril., 1917) au centre du Bénin ABSTRACT Objectives : This study was conducted in the municipalities of Dassa-Zoumè, Glazoué and Savalou and aimed to evaluate soybean seed production techniques. The objective is to develop a decision making tool for relevant and specific interventions and support for farmers with sometimes distinct characteristics and needs. Methodology and Results : Semi-structured interviews were conducted with forty-three (43) soybean seed multiplication farmers using a questionnaire, following by field visits of certified soybean seed multiplication. Qualitative and quantitative data collected with those farmers were input, encoded and analyzed using Excel spreadsheets and XLSTAT version 7.5 software. The multipliers in Glazoué were the most experienced with an average of 4.42±2.90 years and obtained the highest yields (1.73±0.37 t/ha). Flat tillage recommended by extensionists was practiced by 9.30% of farmers and was only applied in Dassa-Zoumè and Savalou. Herbicides were used by most of the seed producers (74.41%), while no phytosanitary products were used to control soybean pests. The main constraints recorded were related to climatic hazards (uneven rains, poor distribution of rains, etc.), lack of manpower, delays in the supply of inputs (inoculum, seed, etc.), as well as delays in payment to producers and the difficulty of sowing. Conclusion and application of results: A high commitment is therefore required from farmers based organizations for advocacy and lobbying towards a quick search of solutions to the delay in payment and that of the supply of seeds and inoculum in order to improve the performance of the entire sector. Moreover, any project or program that aims at professionalizing the seed sector would benefit by training and prioritizing the role of farmer-multipliers in the seed system. Keywords: Soybean, seed, cultural practices, constraints, Central Benin

The black plum Vitex doniana is a wild tree widely distributed in Africa. It is consumed as a leafy vegetable by at least 22 ethnic groups in Benin and also used as a source of income. This research analyzed the value chain of this leafy vegetable in order to define strategies that create added value for maximum profits for stakeholders. For each segment of the value chain, we investigated the flow of goods and services, financial flows, opportunities, and bottlenecks. The results indicate that three groups of stakeholders, including collectors-processors, wholesalers, and retailers, were involved in the production and marketing of Vitex doniana leaves. The Vitex doniana investigated in this study came from Kpokissa, a village located in the southeast near Bohicon. Vitex doniana was parboiled before selling and generated reasonable income for stakeholders. Bottlenecks in this value chain included the low density of trees for high productivity, the use of traditional tools for leaf harvest, and poor yield performance of trees due to ageing. Moreover, Vitex doniana was not found in supermarkets and small restaurants, indicating that the species remains an underutilized leafy vegetable. The analysis of the Vitex doniana value chain revealed that some consumers adopted freeze preservation, which requires keeping the pre-cooked vegetable below 0 °C before further use. This method added value. These results provide a baseline for further investigations in improving the value chain of Vitex doniana .

Although Bobgunnia madagascariensis is an important tree species known in traditional medicinal with a well-recognized galactogenic properties, it remains poorly documented. In Benin, little information is available on this species which is highly threatened in its natural habitat. In this study, the morphological variability of 51 trees of B. madagascariensis from Sudanian (28 trees) and Sudano-Guinean zones (23 trees) of Benin was evaluated using 20 descriptors, including 7 qualitative and 13 quantitative traits. A hierarchical ascending classification followed by principal component analysis, analysis of variance and quantitative traits correlation analysis were used to describe the intraspecific diversity of B. madagascariensis in the study areas. Analysis of morphometric data revealed the existence of three morphological groups within the species with a distinct morphological organization among the trees sampled. The discriminating morphological descriptors included the total height of the tree, the diameter at 1.30m, the bole height, the leaf length, the number of leaflets of the leaf, the fruit weight, the fruit length and width, as well as the seed length and weight. Individuals in group 3 had the highest values for nine of the 10 most discriminating traits. A significant and positive correlation was found between trees' total height and seed length, as well as between fruit traits (fruit weight, fruit length) and seed traits (seed weight, seed length). In addition, the diameter at 1.3 m was positively correlated with the leaf width. The results also revealed a significant difference between the trees observed in the Sudanian zone and those in the Sudano-Guinean zone with the number of leaflets, the petiole length, the fruits width, the seeds weight and length as discriminating traits. This study provided preliminary data on the morphological variability of B. madagascariensis and will serve as basis for a selection, conservation and domestication program. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of SAAB.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the morphological diversity of plantain accessions from three main plantain growing districts in Benin Republic. Sixteen descriptors were used including 5 quantitative. Overall, 31 cultivars were identified and associated with various names depending on the sociolinguistic groups. Results indicated the presence in each district of the three types of inflorescences (male rachis appearance) that describe the plantain subgroup. False horn is the most represented with 19 accessions, followed by French type with 10 accessions and True horn with only two accessions. All plantains were giant cultivars with pseudostem greater than 3 m, except hybrid L5449, which averaged 2.89±0.06 m. The collection was dominated by accessions having slightly oblique or sub-horizontal bunches (83.87%). Quantitative variables were submitted to Principal Component Analysis (PCA) which led to the separation of all the accessions into four clusters having specific traits that can be harnessed diversely in a breeding program. The presence of the three types of inflorescences confirmed plantain phenotypical diversity, with “False horn” type dominating plantain cultivars. Moreover, the occurrence of genetic erosion of white pulp cultivars is due to consumer preferences.

The increasing implication of plantain flour in various food formulations calls for the need to evaluate the effects of ripening stage, packaging materials, and storage duration on its proximal composition and functional properties. For this study, plantain flours were produced from the cultivar Alloga at unripe and semiripe stage 3. They were stored both in transparent polyethylene bags and in an opaque aluminum foil. Physicochemical analyses and functional characterization of the plantain flour were performed on samples taken prior to storage and on monthly basis for 6 months during storage. Ash and carbohydrate contents decreased while the yellowness and redness increased with ripening. Pasting viscosity drastically decreased with ripening. During storage, significant differences in color and among most functional characteristics were observed as a consequence of both storage duration and packaging materials. Based on this research, flour from semiripe plantain could be recommended for use in formulations requiring low viscosity. Besides, it is suggested to store plantain flours in opaque containers to reduce the variability in its properties, thus maintaining its original quality.

Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) is a key crop, relevant to achieve food security and improve the livelihoods of many households in Africa, particularly in West Africa, where it has become a major staple food. But along with its production, farmers are facing a major foliar disease, the Black Sigatoka that limits the productivity. The yield losses incurred by farmers due to this disease can reach 50%. Knowledge regarding this disease is crucial for effective management of the disease. This paper aims at diagnosing the differences in perceptions and knowledge between farmers and scientists with regard to strategies of managing black Sigatoka on plantain. A survey was conducted on 446 randomly selected farmers using a semi-structured questionnaire in five major plantain growing municipalities (Athieme, Adja-Ouere, Tori-Bossito, Ouinhi, Ze) in Benin. This study came up with knowledge and perceptions of farmers on the symptoms, causes, conducive conditions for disease development, and means of dissemination and strategies for managing black Sigatoka. It appeared that most farmers recognized the disease lesions on the leaves, but failed to associate these symptoms with the targeted disease. In addition, farmers had very limited knowledge of the causal agent, disseminating mechanism and effective management methods. The majority of farmers that are aware of the symptoms (92.7%) associated the yield loss on plantain field with the occurrence of this disease. This appreciation varied from a significant yield loss (54.2%) to a moderate yield loss (45.8%). Most farmers (69%) did not adopt any disease control measures. Deleafing was the most common control method used by 30.2% of the farmers. Apart from this technique, very few farmers reported using synthetic pesticides and biopesticides based on neem leaves (Azadirachta indica). Agricultural research institutes and farmers’ advisory systems were poorly involved in building and managing knowledge related to black Sigatoka in southern Benin. This study has the merit to bring out key information that will help design appropriate programme that would make it possible to manage this disease successfully in short and medium terms with smallholder farmers.

This article focuses on the use of biomass to produce transportation fuels such as synthetic natural gas, bioethanol and electricity under a sustainable scenario in West Africa in 2050. The aim of this work was to evaluate the feasibility of producing such biofuels using agricultural residues as feedstock in the studied area. The potential of biomass from ten agricultural residues was estimated in R environment using FAO data. Options were analyzed in order to generate portfolios of transportation fuels based on energy indicators, biomass availability and scenarios of technological progress. The optimal allocation varied from one country to the other, showing a fair tradeoff between the objective functions.

Plantains (Musa spp) are among the most important cultivated horticultural crops in West Africa. Various varieties and cultivars are produced in Benin. This study aimed at evaluating the physical characteristics and some proximate composition of some plantain cultivars consumed in Benin. Physical parameters including weight of the bunch, number of hands and fingers, weight of hands and finger, pulp percentage and flour yield were assessed using five cultivars of plantain (Aloga, Aloga 2M, Gnivlan, Kpahissi, Orishele) and one cooking banana (Pelipita). In addition, color parameters, dry matter as well as total minerals contents were assessed for the pulp of the various cultivars. It came out that Kpahissi cultivars had heavier bunches and a lot of hands than the other cultivars while Aloga 2M had the highest weight of hands and fingers. Finger number varied from 2 to 12 among the six cultivars. The pulp percentage ranged from 51.3 to 70.71%. Kpahissi pulp was brighter but less yellow and red than the other pulps cultivars. Significant differences were observed in dry matter and total minerals contents of pulps with highest values for Pelipita pulp. This study provides baseline information on plantain diversity in terms of their physical characteristics in Benin. Results can be helpful in the choice of plantain bunches during purchasing.

Les Fusarium pathogènes des plantes cultivées dont Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. elaeidis agent de la fusariose du palmier à huile, sont des espèces de champignons phytopathogènes rencontrées dans les sols cultivés aussi bien des régions tempérées que des régions tropicales. Ils s’attaquent aux cultures et engendrent des dégâts économiques conséquents. Cette synthèse fait le point des études menées sur les effets des facteurs de l'environnement sur le développement et le potentiel infectieux des espèces pathogènes du genre Fusarium. Les variables climatiques à savoir les précipitations, l’humidité du sol et de l’air, l’ensoleillement et la température sont autant de facteurs impactant le développement des Fusarium. La salinité de l’air et du sol agit de façon directe ou indirecte sur leur biologie et leur cycle de vie. A forte concentration, le chlorure de sodium stimule certaines espèces de Fusarium alors qu’il entraine une forte réduction de la densité d’autres espèces. De plus, la composition chimique, la communauté microbienne ainsi que le pH du sol modulent également leur développement. Enfin les éléments minéraux tels que le Fer, le Manganèse, le Zinc, le Calcium, le Potassium, le Sodium et le Magnésium peuvent induire des mécanismes de résistance chez les plantes en réponse aux attaques causées par les Fusarium. Cependant, il faut noter que les effets des facteurs climatiques peuvent être bénéfiques ou non en fonction des espèces. Il en est de même pour le pH, les communautés microbiennes, les éléments minéraux et les sels notamment le NaCl contenus dans les sols dont nous constatons que les effets diffèrent d’une espèce à l’autre. Ces résultats ne sont donc pas extrapolables au couple Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. elaeidis - palmier à huile. Par conséquent, la collecte des données pouvant permettre l’identification des différents facteurs agissant sur Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. elaeidis devient pertinente. De plus, ces connaissances contribueraient à optimiser les tests de screening pour la sélection du matériel tolérant et permettraient une meilleure gestion intégrée de la fusariose en plantation. Mots clés : Développement Fusarium, facteurs climatiques, composition sol, pH, salinité. English Title: Effect of environmental factors on pathogenic Fusarium in cropsFusarium pathogens from cultivated plants, including Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. elaeidis, agent of Fusarium wilt of oil palm, are species of phytopathogenic fungi found both in cultivated soils in temperate and tropical regions. They attack crops and cause significant economic damage. This review summarizes studies conducted on the effects of environmental factors on the development and infectious potential of these pathogenic Fusarium. Climate variables such as precipitation, soil and air humidity, sunlight and temperature are all factors that impact the development of Fusarium. The salinity of the air and soil acts directly or indirectly on their biology and life cycle. In high rate concentration, sodium chloride stimulates some Fusarium species whereas it causes a strong reduction in the density of other species. In addition, the chemical composition, microbial community and soil pH also modulate their development. Finally, mineral elements such as iron, manganese, zinc, calcium, potassium, sodium, and magnesium can induce resistance mechanisms in plants in response to attacks caused by Fusarium. This review shows that climatic factors act on the development of Fusarium. However, it should be noted that the effects of climatic factors may or may not be beneficial regarding the species. The same is true for pH, microbial communities, mineral elements and salts, mainly NaCl contained in soils, whose effects differ from one species to another. These results cannot therefore be extrapolated to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. elaeidis - oil palm. Therefore, the collection of data that may allow the identification of the different factors acting on Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. elaeidis becomes relevant. Moreover, this knowledge would help to optimize screening tests for the selection of tolerant material and would allow better integrated management of fusariosis in plantations. Keywords: Fusarium development, climatic factors, soil composition, pH, salinity.

Oil palm Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (Arecaceae) is one of the cash crops that mainly contributes to the gross domestic production of growing countries. This crop is grown worldwide throughout the humid intertropical belt. Its production in Africa is mainly threatened by the telluric fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. elaeidis, causal agent of the oil palm vascular wilt. It has been reported that some environmental factors, such as soil and air salinity, may determine the survival, development and severity of phytopathogenic agents including Fusarium. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of NaCl on growth, reproduction and pathogenic traits of this fungus by measuring mycelium daily growth, mycelium dry weight, sporulation rate, germination rate and number of infectious spores under four NaCl concentrations (0 g.L-1, 2.5 g.L-1, 5 g.L-1 ,10 g.L-1) of culture medium (MM solid medium and Armstrong liquid medium). The results indicated that NaCl reduced the radial daily growth and mycelium dry weight. In addition, the NaCl reduced significantly the sporulation rate and number of infectious spores while increasing the germination rate. Overall, these results indicated the negative NaCl effect on the development and the fitness of this pathogenic fungus. Thus, NaCl inputs appeared to be a potential solution for managing Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. elaeidis in the field, if a good balance between a decrease of disease incidence and yield loss is reached.

The antibacterial effect of Moringa oleifera Lam., Azadirachta indica L. and Jatropha curcas L. on Pantoea spp and Sphingomonas spp was assessed in rice seeds in Benin Republic. Isolates of three bacteria - Pantoea stewartii (IIIV11BE2_Sterw), Pantoea ananatis (IIIV6LB31_Anan) and Sphingomonas spp (IIIV27BE_Sphingo) - were used. The treatments were neem oil (Azadirachta indica) and neem seed powder, Moringa oleifera. seed and leaf powder, and Jatropha curcas. oil. The diameter of the inhibitory zone for each treatment was measured at 72, 96, 120 and 144 hours after incubation (HAI). The effects of the treatments on the size of the inhibition zone of IIIV11BE2_Sterw and IIIV27BE_Sphingo were not significant 72 HAI but were significant on both isolates 96, 120 and 144 HAI. The largest diameters of the inhibition zone of IIIV11BE2_Sterw (0.27 cm at 96 HAI; 0.23 cm at 120 HAI and 0.23 cm at 144 HAI) were recorded with moringa seed extract. For Sphingomonas spp (IIIV27BE_Sphingo), the highest values of the inhibition zone were 0.20 cm with moringa seed extract at 96 and 144 HAI and 0.20 cm with moringa leaf extract at 120 HAI. M. oleifera Lam. has a great potential as antibacterial and its active ingredients should be identified for exploitation.

Helicoverpa armigera, Hübner, 1808 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a major carpophagous insect pest of tomato in Benin.The damages by this insect pest and its resistance to most synthetic insecticides have necessitated the need for alternative methods to limit its damages on tomato.This study carried out in Toffo District in Southern Benin, aims to evaluate the effectiveness of neem extract (Azadirachta indica Juss.) on tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) insect pest Helicoverpa armigera.Thus, two neem extract doses (1.5 l/ha and 2 l/ha) were compared to a chemical pesticide K-OPTIMAL (Lambdacyhalothrin + Acetamiprid at a rate of 1 l/ha) in a randomized complete block design with four replications.The results indicated that neem extract has reduced tomato fruits infestation by H. armigera from 76.72 to 77.22%.The highest infestation reduction of this pest (81.26%) and the highest fruit yield (29.13 tons/ha) were observed in the plots treated with K-OPTIMAL.The yields obtained with neem extract (26.68 and 28.38 tons/ha respectively with 1.5 l/ha and 2 l/ha) were statistically lesser than tomato treated with K-OPTIMAL.However, neem extract allowed obtaining 33.86 to 42.39% yield profit compared to control plot.Neem extract showed its effectiveness to H. armigera control by reducing infestation rates and giving high tomato yield.The neem extract economic profit is

Abstract Purpose: This study assesses the effect of participatory research on farmers' knowledge and practice of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in Benin. The participatory field experiments were carried out during the 2011–2012 cotton growing season, and focused on the development and application of pest management knowledge. Methodology: A ‘Difference-in-Differences’ methodology was used to document the changes in farmers' knowledge and practices across the following season, 2012–2013. Of the 180 cotton growers sampled, 150 took part in the research, while 30 served as the control. Findings: Participation in the research increased farmers' ability to recognise pests and natural enemies and how to use thresholds and apply bio-pesticides. Increase in knowledge did not lead to any modification in the farmers' use of neem oil and the entomopathogen Beauveria, but it did lead to a significant change in threshold-based pesticide applications. Farmers seemed to want to reduce pest management costs, whatever the type of pesticide recommended (conventional or bio-based). Practical Implications: Development practitioners should be aware that changes in practices of IPM are not only knowledge driven. Other factors such as financial consideration and specific input availability are also needed for the success of an effective pest management strategy. Originality/Value: In any interactive process, the Difference-in-Differences methodology is an appropriate tool for an effective assessment of changes in farmers' knowledge and practices over time.

In the present study, the synergistic effects of Beauveria bassiana (Bals.-Criv. Vuill.) (isolate Bb11) and Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Berliner) with neem oil were evaluated in three agroecological zones in Bénin. Four bioinsecticide treatments (neem oil, neem oil and B. bassiana used separately for different target pests, neem oil mixed with B. bassiana and neem oil mixed with B. thuringiensis ) were compared with a calendar-based treatment using synthetic insecticides and a control without insecticides. The bioinsecticide treatments were less effective than the calendar-based treatment at controlling cotton pests. There was no difference in yields and the number of damaged bolls in plots under treatments with the four bioinsecticide formulations, suggesting an absence of synergy between neem oil and B. bassiana and neem oil and B. thuringiensis . The numbers of natural enemies in all the bioinsecticide treatment plots and the control plots were similar and higher than those in the calendar-based treatment plots. The highest yield and profitability were obtained with the calendar-based treatment. Screening the compatibility of plant-based products and biopesticides through bioassays is essential for a successful application of their combinations in any integrated pest management strategy.

Neem oil (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) alone and combined with the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (isolate Bb11) was applied to control cotton pests. The efficacy of these treatments was compared with that of synthetic insecticides applied either in a calendar-based application or in the Lutte Etagee Ciblee' (LEC) strategy, consisting of using first calendar-based (half-dose) applications followed by threshold-based treatments. The experiment was carried out in collaborative research with farmers in three cotton agro-ecological zones differing in rainfall, pest prevalence, and farming practices. The neem oil and neem oil-Bb11 treatments required 2 to 6 applications, while conventional and LEC received 6 to 8 applications. The percentage of damaged reproductive organs in plots treated with neem oil and neem oil plus Bb11 was higher than that recorded under the conventional and LEC strategy, with exception of the zone with the highest rainfall; this resulted in yields being 25% and 39% lower, respectively. Yields in the biopesticide plots were 26-42% higher and in the conventional and LEC plots 44-59% higher than those in the control plots that received only water. Overall, the LEC regime scored best, both in yield and profitability. The incidence of natural enemies was highest in the control and in the plots treated with biopesticides. Although the use of entomopathogen Bb11 and neem oil avoids many problems associated with the application of synthetic insecticides, their efficacy needs to be enhanced by improved formulation or by combining them with other pesticides.

The immediate consequences of the 2009 reform of the cotton sector in Benin are assessed from the farmers' perspective. Using a policy arrangements approach, we analyse how farmers experienced the transformations brought about by the reform and how it influenced their day-to-day activities. The new farmer cooperatives established after the reform were trusted by farmers. Many farmers returned to the sector, increasing cotton output. Nevertheless, productivity remained low, around 900kg/ha, probably because the reform addressed mainly institutional constraints. Technical constraints relating to varietal choice, soil fertility improvement, and pest management were neglected. The policy arrangements emerging from the reform still generate discussion, in particular about the way actors and coalitions are organized. The top-down approach of the reform process has limitations for problem-solving, especially where actors' interests collide. The adjustments made under the reform with regard to farmer-based organizations and actors from public services, the caution solidaire, and farmers' supervision proved inappropriate for solving the institutional problems posed at the nodes of actors and coalitions, resources, discourses, and institutions, thereby further undermining the cotton sector. A mix of technological and institutional reforms might offer a more effective option for the future.

A pest management strategy entitled Staggered Targeted Control (in French Lutte Étagée Ciblée, known as LEC) has been promoted in Benin since 1988 as an alternative to the conventional spraying strategy in order to reduce production costs and improve cotton yield and quality. Many cotton growers are eager to use LEC and many projects are promoting it but the strategy is not widely applied in cotton growing areas. This study identifies the main reasons that hinder the adoption of LEC. Results show that LEC in its current form could not be considered a viable innovation because of a lack of alignment among key elements within the cotton sector. Socio-organizational arrangements for the management of pesticide leftovers and the setting up of a mechanism for farmers’ empowerment are key institutional changes that could shift crop protection towards wider adoption of LEC. Actors in the cotton sector have furthermore suggested a transition towards a participatory approach in extension to improve farmers’ expertise in LEC implementation, bypassing existing channels for delivery of LEC pesticides, and promoting alternatives like botanicals and biopesticides.