In 2002, World Health Organization published "Terrorist Threats to Food", which was intended primarily for policy-makers in national governments with responsibilities for ensuring food safety, and was designed to assist them in incorporating considerations of food terrorism into existing food safety systems. In this context, food terrorism was defined as 'an act or threat of deliberate contamination of food for human consumption with biological, chemical and physical agents or radio-nuclear (CBRNE) materials for the purpose of causing injury or death to civilian populations and/or disrupting social, economic or political stability'.We aimed to evaluate terrorism risk perception through a series of hypotheses drown from a social cognitive model of individual response to terrorism developed by Lee and Lemyre [ 1]. Perception of terrorism on the dimensions of probability, seriousness, personal impact and coping efficacy were examined as specific cognitive factors, while perceptions of institutional preparedness for terrorism were examined as social-contextual factors.In the current study, data from 217 managers and decision makers from organizations operating in the food industry in Romania and 102 in Turkey were used.Results demonstrated that behavioral responses to terrorism, such as individual preparedness and information seeking, are related with cognitive and social-contextual factors. As an affective response, worry about terrorism did not independently contributed to the prediction of behavioral responses, although it is related with both cognitive and social-contextual factors.

This study was aimed at reducing patulin content of apple juice using a non-thermal method, namely pulsed-high hydrostatic pressure (p-HHP). Commercially available clear apple juice was contaminated artificially with different concentrations of patulin (5, 50 and 100 ppb). Then, the samples were processed 5 min at different pressure treatments (300-500 MPa) in combination with different temperatures (30-50 degrees C) and pulses (6 pulses x 50 s and 2 pulses x 150 s). To compare the impact of pulses, single pulse of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) treatment was also applied with the same pressure/temperature combinations and holding time. Results indicated that pressure treatment in combination with mild heat and pulses reduced the levels of patulin in clear apple juice up to 62.11%. However, reduction rates did not follow a regular pattern. p-HHP was found to be more effective in low patulin concentrations, whereas HHP was more effective for high patulin concentrations. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study using p-HHP to investigate the reduction of patulin content in apple juice.

Mycotoxin citrinin (CIT) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were simultaneously identified using immunoaffinity column-high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (IAC-HPLC-FD) (Ex.333 nm; Em:495 nm) after an optimized extraction procedure. Both mycotoxins were eluted on a C(18) RP support (250 x 4.6 mm I.D., ODS2, 5 mu m particles) using an isocratic eluent consisting of acetonitrile/water/formic acid (60/38/2, v/v/v), acidified to pH 2.5 and pumped at a flow rate of 1.0 mL min(-1). The four categories of citrinin levels [0-0.55; 1.56-2.0; 0.66-2.64; 5.76-14.55 mu g kg(-1) of CIT] and three categories of ochratoxin levels [0 - < 0.1; 0.1-0.25; 0.30- 0.46 mu g kg(-1) of OTA] were found in 88 groups of olive samples. Recovery studies [y= 21416x - 7919.4 (R(2)=0.9998) for citrinin and y= 0.0001x + 0.0074 (R(2)=0.9999) for ochratoxin A] were performed and the mean analytical recoveries detected in CIT and OTA in table olives ranged from 92.65 - 96.83% and 88.92 - 95.58%, respectively. Limit of detection (LOD) was equivalent to 0.05 mu g/kg for both CIT and OTA. With the proposed method, CIT and OTA were both quickly determined in table olives and could be used to detect of mycotoxinic risks in a HACCP quality system of olive and olive-based food products.

OBJECTIVESTo study the molecular characteristics of the quinolone and associated ampicillin resistance mechanisms present in Salmonella enterica serovar Virchow isolated from Turkish foods.METHODSNine epidemiologically unrelated Salmonella Virchow strains isolated from foods (chicken and minced meat) sold in different markets in Ankara were analysed for their susceptibility to 17 antimicrobials. The strains were typed by PFGE and plasmid profiling and investigated by molecular methods (PCR/sequencing) for the presence of several resistance genes, class 1 integrons and mutations in the quinolone resistance-determining regions. Plasmids conferring quinolone resistance were analysed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, DNA hybridization, sequencing, replicon-typing PCR and mating experiments.RESULTSAll strains showed nalidixic acid resistance (MIC >or= 128 mg/L) together with a decreased susceptibility to ciprofloxacin (three strains with an MIC of 1 mg/L and six with an MIC of 0.25 mg/L), associated with mutations within the gyrA gene (Asp-87 --> Tyr-87). In three strains, qnrS1 genes were detected. Ampicillin resistance encoded by a bla(CTX-M3) gene and/or bla(TEM-1-like) gene was found in four strains. Three of these strains carried an approximately 45 kb conjugative plasmid, designated pRQ2006, harbouring qnrS1 and a Tn3-like transposon. Partial sequencing and RFLP of pRQ2006 indicated its similarity to the qnrS1 plasmid pAH03786 found in a Japanese Shigella flexneri 2b isolate.CONCLUSIONSThis is the first study describing the presence of qnrS1 genes in bacterial isolates from Turkey. The pRQ2006 plasmid seems to be more related to the S. flexneri 2b qnrS1 plasmid pAH0376 than to the Salmonella qnrS1-carrying plasmids pINF5 and TPqnrS-2.

Objectives: Characterisation of the resistance (R) phenotypes and underlying molecular mechanisms in Salmonella (S.) Infantis strains isolated from Turkish foods. Methods: 100 Salmonella isolates were isolated from foods bought in free markets in Ankara (2005–2006). One of the most prevalent serotypes was Infantis (13 isolates). Nine of these S. Infantis isolates were considered as epidemiological unrelated strains (different isolation date or place). The nine strains (7 from chickens and 2 from minced meat) were tested for susceptibility to 17 antimicrobial agents by broth microdilution. Resistant strains were screened for 16 R-genes, class 1 and 2 integrons and mutations in the quinolone-R determining regions. Strains were typed by XbaI-PFGE and plasmid profile. Results: The strains showed two similar XbaI-PFGE-patterns (differences affecting two bands). Six strains showed PFP1 and 3 PFP2. One big plasmid (>200 kb) was present in all of them. All strains were multiresistant, with resistances to 7−9 antimicrobials (6−7 R-determinants). Two phenotypic R-patterns were found: [kanamycin– neomycin–nalidixic acid–streptomycin–spectimomycin–sulfamethoxazole–tetracycline–trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim] in eight strains, and the same R-pattern without [kanamycin–neomycin] in one. One R-determinant was responsible for each resistance: aphA1 for kanamycin, aadA1-like for streptomycin-spectinomycin (no strA or strB were found); sul1 for sulfamethoxazole (no sul2 or sul3 were present); tet(A) for tetracycline (no tet(G) or tet(B)); and dfrA14 for trimethoprim (no dfrA1, A12, A7 or A17 were present). All strains harboured a class 1 integron carrying an aadA1 gene. No class 2 integrons were detected. All strains were resistant to nalidixic acid and showed reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin (0.25−0.5microg/mL) conferred by mutations in the gyrA (Ser83 to Tyr83) and parC (Thr57 to Ser57) genes. No quinolone-R genes qnrA, qnrB or qnrS were found. Conclusions: S. Infantis isolated from foods in Turkey exhibit a wide repertoire of genetic elements to survive under antimicrobial pressure. One specific PFGE-type carrying a big plasmid (>200 kb), and with the antimicrobial multi-R pheno/genotype [KAN-NEO]-[STR-SPE]-SULTET-[TMP-SXT]-NAL/aphA1-aadA1-sul1-tet(A)-dfrA14-[gyrA^Tyr83parC^Ser57) is widespread. Since S. Infantis frequently causes human infections, the wide spread of such a multiresistant clone within foods should be considered as a public concern.

Organic acids, hot water (HW), and chlorine have been commonly used in carcass decontamination for years. However, it has been observed that organic acids have adverse effects on color and are corrosive, while HW is discoloring. On the other hand, glucose fermentation by lactic acid bacteria in meat during the rigor period might be effective in microbial inhibition, without producing an adverse effect on the organoleptic quality of meat. Therefore, this study has aimed at finding an alternative meat decontamination procedure without any adverse effects. In this study, briskets were treated with 6 different applications: D (+) glucose monohydrate (GM) (16.51 g/100 mL, 15%) dip, HW dip, sodium pyrophosphate (SPP) and HW dip, GM + SPP + HW, and GM + HW combined dip. Then, the results of these applications were compared. First, GM + HW and GM + SPP + HW applications indicated more inhibition on Pseudomonas spp., Coliform and total Mesophile Aerob Bacteria growth, resulting in lower acidity loss (P < 0.01). Second, additional use of SPP with GM and HW did not enhance microbial inhibition (P < 0.01). Finally and most importantly, GM, 15%, improved a and b Hunter values significantly (P < 0.01), producing a very intense red meat color that can be very attractive for meat producers and consumers.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of high hydrostatic pressure with a mild heat treatment on Staphylococcus aureus 485, Escherichia coli O157:H7 933 and Salmonella Enteritidis FDA in apple, orange, apricot and sour cherry juices. The effectiveness of the treatment on polyphenol oxidase activity in apple juice and pectinesterase activity in orange juice were also determined. An inoculum of microorganisms was completely inactivated at 350MPa and 40°C in 5min. The residual polyphenol oxidase activity in apple juice after treatment at 450MPa and 50°C for 60min was obtained as 9±2.2%. The residual pectinesterase activity in orange juice after treatment at 450MPa and 50°C for 30min was determined as approximately 7±1.6%. It compares with 12±0.2% at a treatment of 40°C and 450MPa for 60min. Pressure resistant isoenzymes were thought to be responsible for the final residual activity. The inactivation is irreversible and the enzyme is not reactivated upon storage. High pressure processing constitutes an effective technology to inactivate the enzymes in fruit juices. Pressures higher than 400MPa can be combined with mild heat (<50°C) to accelerate enzyme inactivation.

Four lactococcal bacteriophages (phiLl6-2, phiLl35-6, phiLd66-36 and phiLd67-42) in M17 broth were pressurized at 300 and 350 MPa at room temperature and their survival curves were determined at various time intervals. Tailing (monotonic upward concavity) was observed in all survival curves. The resulting non-linear semi-logarithmic survival curves were described by the Weibull model and goodness of fit of this model was investigated. Regression coefficients (R2), root mean square error (RMSE), residual and correlation plots strongly suggested that Weibull model produced a better fit to the data than the traditional linear model. Hazard plots suggested that the Weibull model was fully appropriate for the data being analyzed. These results have confirmed that the Weibull model, which is mostly utilized to describe the inactivation of bacterial cells or spores by heat and pressure, could be successfully used in describing the lactococcal bacteriophage inactivation by high hydrostatic pressure.

Unpasteurized lager beer samples from a commercial brewery were treated either by high hydrostatic pressure (HHP; 200, 250, 300, 3SOMPa for 3 and 5min at 20 degrees C) or by conventional heat pasteurization (60 degrees C for 15 min). The main attributes of the beer, such as ethanol content, extract and pH, were not affected by either treatment; however HHP and heat pasteurization affected colour, chill haze, protein sensitivity and bitterness. Change in bitterness was higher in conventional heat pasteurization, but pressures up to 300 MPa had no significant affect on bitterness. Although more studies should be carried out to investigate the effects of HHP treatment on different types of lagers and ales, our results revealed that HHP could be successfully used to process beer, even at temperatures well below those required for heat pasteurization, without affecting some of the quality attributes. (c) 2005 Society of Chemical Industry

ABSTRACT Scanning electron microcopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were used to evaluate structural changes in Leuconostoc mesenteroides cells as a function of high-hydrostatic-pressure treatment. This bacterium usually grows in chains of cells, which were increasingly dechained at elevated pressures. High-pressure treatments at 250 and 500 MPa also caused changes in the external surface and internal structure of cells. Dechaining and blister formation on the surface of cells increased with pressure, as observed in SEM micrographs. TEM studies showed that cytoplasmic components of the cells were affected by high-pressure treatment. DSC studies of whole cells showed increasing denaturation of ribosomes with pressure, in keeping with dense compacted regions in the cytoplasm of pressure-treated cells observed in TEM micrographs. Apparent reduction of intact ribosomes observed in DSC thermograms was related to the reduction in number of viable cells. The results indicate that inactivation of L. mesenteroides cells is mainly due to ribosomal denaturation observed as a reduction of the corresponding peak in DSC thermograms and condensed interior regions of cytoplasm in TEM micrographs.

Bacteria are expected to be injured or killed by high hydrostatic pressure (HHP). This depends on pressure levels, species and strain of the microorganism and subsequent storage. Injured bacteria may be repaired which could affect the microbiological quality of foodstuffs with an important safety consideration especially in low acid food products. In this study two Gram-positive (Listeria monocytogenes CA and Staphylococcus aureus 485) and two Gram-negative (Escherichia coli O157:H7 933 and Salmonella enteritidis FDA) relatively pressure resistant strains of foodborne pathogens were pressurized at 350, 450 and 550 MPa in milk (pH 6.65) and stored at 4, 22 and 30°C. The results of shelf life studies indicated two types of injury, I1 and I2, for all the pathogens studied. It is obvious that I2 type injury is a major injury and after its repair (I2 to I1), the cells can form colonies on non-selective but not on selective agar. The formation of colonies on both selective and non-selective agar occurs only after full recovery of injury (I1 to AC). The results presented in this study show that even if injured cells are not detected immediately after HHP treatment, I2 type injury could be potentially present in the food system. Therefore, it is imperative that shelf life studies must be conducted over a period of time for potential repair of I2 type injury either to detectable injury (I1) or to active cells (AC) to ascertain microbiological safety of low acid food products.

The survival curves of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris by high hydrostatic pressure were obtained at two pressures (350 and 450 MPa) and three temperature levels (35, 45 and 50 °C) in BAM broth. Tailing (upward concavity) was observed in all survival curves. Weibull model was fitted to these data and goodness of fit of this model was investigated. Regression coefficients (R2), root mean square (RMSE) values and residual plot strongly suggested that Weibull model produced good fit to the data. A better fit was observed for the data at lower pressure (350 MPa). Shape factors of the Weibull model (n values) for 350 MPa at 35, 45 and 50 °C were significantly different from each other (P<0.05). Two linear emprical equations were obtained for scale factors (b values) at the temperature values studied for 350 and 450 MPa. Such pressure–temperature inactivation models form the engineering basis for design, evaluation and optimization of high hydrostatic pressure processes as a new preservation technique.

Evisceration makes chicken carcasses susceptible to microbial contamination from gastrointestinal sources. A preventive action between spray washing and air chilling, a yogurt dip, may eliminate concerned contamination and enhance the bactericidal effect of nisin on Salmonella. This study was designed to determine whether synergism occurred with or without the application of an oil–beeswax coating. A 5 h yogurt dip then nisin with coating' and a 5 h yogurt dip then nisin, indicated significant inhibition of mesophilic aerobic bacteria and Salmonella with 2.11 and 1.97 log reductions, supported by pH, chromatographic and sensory findings (p<0.01).

Effect of polydextrose-substitution on the cell structure of the high-ratio cake system was investigated in terms of the bubble size distribution and foam drainage time of the cake batter, and the cake height, true and bulk densities, porosity, cell size and shape distributions of the cake crumb. Sugar-replacement levels were 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of the sugar content of the conventional high-ratio cake formulation.Polydextrose-substitution resulted in a uniform bubble size distribution within the cake batter. Bubble size distribution was similar to that of the conventional high-ratio cake even at the full-replacement level. Polydextrose-substitution resulted in a significant decrease in foam drainage time above the 50% sugar-replacement level.Increase in polydextrose-substitution affected expansion properties significantly by favoring the formation of small, sphere-like cells with diminishing interconnectivity. Polydextrose-substitution influenced crumb color significantly due to Maillard reactions. Cell structure of the crumb at the 25% sugar-replacement level was similar to that of the conventional high-ratio cake. A product similar to the high-ratio cake with respect to the batter characteristics, porosity, and cell size and shape distributions was obtained at the 25% sugar-replacement level resulting in 18.75% calorie reduction based on the sugar content of the conventional formulation.

The objective of this study was to compare high pressure resistance of Listeria monocytogenes strains at 25°C and 50°C at 350 MPa and to use high pressure (250 MPa and 350 MPa) at 30°C and 40°C for the inactivation of the relatively most pressure resistant strain inoculated in pasteurized apple, apricot, cherry and orange juices. L. monocytogenes CA was found to be the relatively most pressure resistant strain and increasing pressurization from 250 MPa to 350 MPa at 30°C had an additional three to four log cycle reduction in viability, still leaving viable cells after 5 min. When 350 MPa at 40°C for 5 min was applied more than eight log cycle reduction in cell population of all fruit juices was achieved. This study demonstrated that low temperature (40°C) high pressure (350 MPa) treatment has the potential to inactivate relatively pressure resistant L. monocytogenes strains inoculated in different fruit juices within 5 min.

The objective of this study is to determine the effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) on inactivation of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris vegetative cells in a model system (BAM broth) and in orange, apple and tomato juices. The shelf-life stability of pressurized juices is also studied. In general the viability loss was enhanced significantly as the level of pressure and temperature were increased ( P < 0.05). 4.70 log cycle reduction was obtained after pressurization at 350 MPa at 50 °C for 20 min in BAM broth whereas thermal treatment at 50 °C for 20 min caused only 1.13 log cycle inactivation showing the effectiveness of HHP treatment on inactivation. The D values for pressure (350 MPa at 50 °C) and temperature (50 °C) treatments were 4.37 and 18.86 min in BAM broth, respectively. All juices were inoculated with A. acidoterrestris cells to 10 6 c.f.u./ml and were pressurized at 350 MPa at 50 °C for 20 min. More than 4 log cycle reduction was achieved in all juices studied immediately after pressurization. The pressurized juices were also stored up to 3 weeks at 30 °C and the viable cell numbers of A. acidoterrestris in orange, apple and tomato juices were 3.79, 2.59 and 2.27 log cycles, respectively after 3 weeks. This study has indicated that A. acidoterrestris vegetative cells can be killed by HHP at a predictable rate even at temperatures at which the microorganism would normally grow.

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to evaluate the relative high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) resistances of bacterial strains from Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in vivo. The total apparent enthalpy change and thermal stability were two DSC parameters used to compare bacterial strains of untreated control and pressure-treated bacteria. DSC thermograms indicated that ribosomal denaturation appears to be a major factor in cell death by both thermal and high pressure treatments. However, the analysis of calorimetric data for control samples as well as pressure-treated samples clearly showed that the sensitivities of bacteria to various physical stresses can be different. While S. aureus 765 had a relatively higher resistance to thermal treatment in comparison to S. aureus 485, S. aureus 485 was determined to be more resistant to pressure than S. aureus 765. This information can be utilized in the design of processes specific to targeting certain cellular components by using different physical stresses.

By the application of HHP; 5.50 and 5.70 log cycle reduction was obtained for S. aureus 485, in milk and cream of chicken soup samples, respectively. Storage of HHP treated milk samples for 24 h at 4degreesC gave positive result for S. aureus 765 where no growth was observed for L. monocytogenes strains. Incubation of food samples for an additional 48 h at 37degreesC showed growth of L. monocytogenes strains as S. aureus strains. When a bacteriocin-based biopreservative (BP1) was combined with pressurization more than 8 log-cycle reduction in cell population of the resistant strains of S. aureus and L. monocytogenes was achieved in milk. Milk and cream of chicken soup samples were stored at 25degreesC and milk samples showed no growth up to 30 day where as Gram-positive bacterial strains in cream of chicken showed growth after 3 days with a rapid increase in cell number thereafter.

By the application of HHP; more than 8 log cycle reduction was achieved for E. coli O157:H7 933 and Salmonella FDA in milk and cream of chicken soup in 5 min. Storage of HHP treated milk samples showed absence of both bacteria for 24 h at 4degreesC and for 48 h at 37degreesC. The population of the strains in cream of chicken soup exceeded their initial value after 5 days of storage at 25degreesC. BP1 was combined with HHP and used for inhibition of surviving bacterial species in cream of chicken soup. There was at least 7 log cycle reduction in E. coli O157:H7 933 and Salmonella FDA after 5 and 7 days of storage at 25 C respectively, when compared to HHP alone. Combination of HHP with BP1 extended the shelf life of cream of chicken soup for both bacterial species an additional 2 days at 25 degreesC when compared with HHP treatment alone.