In recent years, the rapid integration of renewable energies like solar and wind introduces grid stability challenges due to their weather-dependent output, making reliable storage solutions such as Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS) systems essential. Consequently, this study aims to evaluate the environmental impacts using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. The inventory data stem from simulated energy and water flows through a mathematical-physics model based on Python, referring to an existing European Alpine facility. From an eco-design standpoint, the simulation facilitated preliminary modelling of system flows, enabling a detailed prediction of system behaviour. Three realistic scenarios were analysed, featuring energy mixes from wind, grid, hydroelectric plants (HPP), PHS, and demand loads, differentiated by active system elements. The system boundaries adopted for the LCA study are cradle-to-grave, and the impact assessment methods used are ReCiPe 2016 and EF 3.1. The results reveal that the presence of PHS system significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions (i.e., −81%) and other environmental impacts compared to the baseline scenario (i.e., without PHS), although it introduces environmental burdens primarily associated with steel and cement production for infrastructure construction. This study emphasizes the necessity of enhancing Life Cycle Inventory data quality through primary industry sources and recommends incorporating photovoltaic systems into future models for a more holistic evaluation.

Demand for neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets is rising due to their use in clean energy technologies, such as wind turbines and electric cars. Their production based on rare earth elements (REE) creates significant geopolitical and supply chain dependencies. Recycling could mitigate this reliance, yet progress is limited by the absence of a dedicated recovery supply chain. Moreover, devices rich in NdFeB magnets - such as electric motors - are typically processed in plants optimized for the recovery of iron, copper, and aluminum, so REE content is often dispersed within ferrous waste streams because of the ferromagnetic nature of magnets. The aim of our study is to apply a thermal demagnetization step to electric motors prior to the traditional recovery operations for separating ferrous and non-ferrous streams, such as shredding and magnetic separation, to separate a magnet-enriched fraction from the rest of the material flows, without disrupting conventional recycling processes. This approach enables the disintegration of motor components while preserving the downstream recovery of base metals, ultimately producing a magnet-enriched fraction within the non-ferrous matrix. A comprehensive material flow analysis was conducted to quantify and visualize these recovery pathways. Results demonstrated that a portion of the magnet mass bypassed the drum separator and was successfully recovered through an additional magnetic screening step, yielding a magnet-enriched fraction with a final concentration of 50.8% w/w. These findings demonstrate the potential for optimizing pretreatment and separation processes to enhance both NdFeB recovery and separation efficiency, supporting the development of more sustainable magnet recycling systems.

A recycling process for recovering cobalt from lithium-ion battery cathode production scraps is investigated using green solvents. The method combines electrode delamination with triethyl phosphate (TEP), dissolution of the recovered active material in a deep eutectic solvent (DES) composed of choline chloride and oxalic acid (1:1 molar ratio), and selective cobalt precipitation via controlled pH adjustment with KOH. The recovered black mass was characterized by Powder X-ray diffraction PXRD and Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), confirming structural integrity of LiCoO2 after TEP treatment and a purity of ~98.25%. Following DES leaching and precipitation at pH 12, a highly crystalline mixed cobalt oxide/hydroxide phase (CoO2/Co(OH)2) was obtained with a purity of 99.12%. Microwave Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (MP-AES) analysis verified effective cobalt–lithium separation, with cobalt exclusively recovered in the solid phase. A cobalt recovery efficiency of 57% was achieved at lab scale, with losses primarily attributed to material handling at low Technology Readiness Level (TRL) rather than process inefficiency. A cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was conducted using primary experimental inventory data. Environmental hotspot analysis identified DES preparation and the leaching step as the dominant contributors across most impact categories, driven respectively by solvent production (oxalic acid and choline chloride) and electricity consumption. Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses confirmed model robustness and highlighted renewable energy transition and solvent optimization as key levers for future improvement. This early-stage LCA provides a quantitative environmental baseline to support eco-design and scale-up of DES-based cobalt recovery from lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) cathode waste.

In this work, the environmental impacts of imidazolium-based ionic liquids (ILs) are estimated and predicted by combining life cycle assessment (LCA) and a linear group contribution (GC) model to make this information readily available and accessible at early stages of ILs design and selection. This study has resulted in the development of predictive models for global warming, human toxicity and eco-toxicity impacts of imidazolium-based ILs with high accuracy. The validated models are based on the environmental impact data of a sample of 30 ILs with the same cation head group, which was estimated as part of this study using the LCA methodology. The sample considered variations in the cation's hydrocarbon chains, e.g. alkyl, aromatic, multiple side chain and chain length variations, and the commonly used anions chloride (Cl-), tetrafluoroborate ([BF4](-)) and hexafluorophosphate ([PF6](-)), and it was assumed that the ILs were synthesised via alkylation and salt metathesis reactions. Both LCA and GC models results show a clear distinction between the environmental impacts of imidazolium chloride, imidazolium tetrafluoroborate, and imidazolium hexafluorophosphate ILs in the order Cl- < BF4- < PF6-, thus indicating the large influence of the anion when it comes to their environmental sustainability performance. For example, the global warming potential of the ILs per kg are 2 and 3 times higher when substituting the chloride anion with [BF4](-) and [PF6](-) anions, respectively. It is recommended that the sample be expanded to include ILs from other head groups, compare alternative synthesis routes and include purification steps to extend the analysis.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of emerging organic contaminants receiving rising attention due to the threat they may pose to human health and their strong persistence in the environment, determined by their widespread use in the market as additives, reactants, or coverings. Since the most common end-of-life of products is landfill, countless case studies have confirmed the presence of PFAS in leachates. This work aims to evaluate and compare the environmental impacts of four different PFAS removal techniques from landfill leachate through a life cycle assessment performed on laboratory tests. Global warming, particulate matter formation, and human toxicity were examined and discussed in detail, since they represent most of the final single-score impact. The toxicity contribution of the residual PFAS in the matrix was investigated, resulting almost negligible. The results highlight activated carbon, sludge disposal, and sulfuric acid as major environmental hotspots for all categories. The clariflocculation followed by activated carbon adsorption results in the least impactful technique with promising PFAS removal efficiencies, between 44.3% and 82.2% depending on carbon dosage. Very precise correlations in the trends of the impact categories and the use of different functional units were also analysed.

Municipal solid waste management in developing countries creates critical issues for public health, environmental sustainability, and energy security. However, technology selection frameworks often rely on expert judgment without validation with local contextual data, which is a critical gap that will put public investments at risk. In order to identify the most appropriate waste-to-energy technology and diagnostically evaluate expert-derived priorities, this study presents a dual-method multi-criteria decision analysis framework that integrates the Analytical Hierarchy Process with Direct Weight Analysis. Using Sri Lanka, where over 60% of waste is organic, as a case study, interviews were conducted with 18 national stakeholders to assess anaerobic digestion, combustion, pyrolysis and gasification against four primary criteria and 12 sub-criteria. The framework revealed what has been termed the “expert judgment trap”: while the analytical hierarchy process prioritized environmental (58%) and social (25%) criteria, direct weighting analysis revealed the hidden dominance of land use and economic factors in determining project feasibility in resource-constrained settings. Despite this disparity, both approaches recognised that anaerobic digestion was the best technology (scoring 0.88), and scenario analysis supported its structural superiority in all policy priorities. The unpredictability of secondary technology rankings emphasizes the neediness of context-specific feasibility assessments when considering complementary solutions. This proven, replicable approach provides policymakers with a robust decision-support tool that advances sustainable development goals 7, 11, 12 and 13, while protecting against inappropriate investments in developing countries.

Aquafaba, the cooking liquid of legumes, has recently shifted from being a discarded waste stream to a valuable functional ingredient due to its emulsifying and foaming properties. This study addresses two sustainability challenges: reducing the environmental impacts associated with animal-based ingredients in the food sector and decreasing the reliance on petrochemical-derived ingredients in cosmetic formulations. A life cycle assessment approach was applied using two functional units to represent different applications: 100 g of powdered aquafaba for cosmetic use and 100 g of liquid aquafaba with stabilizing additives for food use. Three allocation scenarios were evaluated to reflect different production contexts: baseline, zero burden and economic allocation based on co-product value. The results show that powdered aquafaba used in cosmetics has higher environmental impacts than conventional petrochemical emulsifiers, mainly due to the energy demand of the spray-drying process. In contrast, liquid aquafaba used in food applications exhibits significantly lower environmental impacts than egg-based alternatives. Overall, the environmental performance of aquafaba strongly depends on processing intensity and allocation assumptions.

Ammonia is traditionally produced using the Haber-Bosch process, which requires high temperatures and pressures. Efforts are now focused on finding ways to synthesize NH3 under milder conditions, and the electrochemical nitrate reduction reaction (E-NO3RR) is a promising approach, allowing to produce ammonia starting from waste flows rich in nitrate ions. The aim of this study is to conduct the life cycle assessment (LCA) of the technology at a laboratory scale, to identify its environmental hotspots and to evaluate the flows of critical raw materials (CRMs) and the cost of externalities (CoE) of the process, under a safe and sustainable by design (SSbD) perspective. Results highlight polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and iridium oxide used within the flow cell manufacturing as the most impactful materials, while the electricity consumed to conduct the synthesis is the highest overall contributor to the impacts during the NH3 synthesis. Furthermore, the approach allows to individuate the flow cell as the highest contributor to the consumption of CRMs and the electricity usage as the most impactful process in terms of CoE at laboratory scale, providing insightful information to the developers towards a more sustainable and competitive scale-up of the technology.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA) are currently essential tools for evaluating the sustainability of products and industrial systems. Although LCA is systematically applied today and is considered a stable methodology, supported by material-specific guidelines and rich databases, S-LCA remains immature in certain aspects. In the presented case study, LCA was applied to compare 11 methanol synthesis processes, all based on reverse Water-Gas Shift, but characterized by different sources of CO2 and H2 supply, to identify the most promising. Accordingly, the model was then integrated with that of propylene production (methanol to propylene-MtP), identified as a molecule of interest for the current and future market. Then, the authors propose an innovative approach to enhance the application of S-LCA in the industrial chemistry sector. The climate change impact of the different methanol production scenarios varies significantly: the most impactful is the methanol synthesis via coal gasification (2.76 kg CO2 eq), and the most promising are via CO2 generated by wood chips waste or dedicated biomass by employing hydrogen produce with wind electrolysis, which show the negative impacts of -0.40 kg CO2 eq thanks to cogeneration and the use of hydrogen from renewable sources. On the social level, the database shows a preference for productions occurring in Europe, across all the categories analyzed. The proposal of a sector-specific guideline represents a step forward that could facilitate the future application of the methodology. Moreover, the integration of LCA and S-LCA proves effective in delivering a richer and more comprehensive understanding of the issues addressed, offering valuable insights for stakeholders. The LCA should be applied to assess the environmental sustainability of alternative production routes in chemical processes, while the complexity of S-LCA can be mitigated by initiating preliminary assessments.

In the automotive sector, which is increasingly focused on reducing its environmental impact, limited attention has been given to power systems and components involved in vehicle electrification. This study aims to propose a cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) applied to a DC-LINK capacitor (dimensions 130 mm*48 mm*247 mm and expected reference service life - RSL of 8000 h of driving), manufactured by a leading company in the sector. The aim of the research is filling existing gaps concerning the material composition of DC-LINKs and relative environmental impacts. The analysis examines the contributions of the various materials within the product and develops sensitivity scenarios to evaluate the influence of electricity used during manufacturing and the benefits associated with using secondary materials instead of virgin ones. The Climate Change impacts estimated for the Baseline scenario resulted in 9.50 kg CO2 eq per DC-LINK produced, with material components contributing 88.2 %. The complete hotspot analysis highlighted a general significant influence of the material components, which accounted for at least 57.8 % across all 18 environmental categories examined. The minimal contribution of electricity is justified by the company's decision to use a fully renewable energy mix. The use of secondary copper and aluminium proved advantageous, as it can reduce the climate change impacts of the finished product by 10-14 % with respect to the Baseline. In conclusion, the findings underscore the importance of considering the entire life cycle when assessing the sustainability of components used in the automotive sector and identifying the best strategies for reducing their impacts.

The accurate quantification of carbon flows in wood-based products represents a methodological challenge in environmental assessment, with significant implications for climate policy and sustainable material selection across multiple sectors. This study critically addresses the implications of the 0/0 (carbon neutrality) and-1/+1 (dynamic carbon accounting) approaches in wood carbon accounting, through a comprehensive comparative analysis, using a detailed case study of teak wooden flooring versus fossil-based resin flooring in maritime applications. The research utilizes high-quality primary data, encompassing teak production in Indonesia, ocean transport, use and disposal in European markets, enabling a comprehensive site-specific analysis of environmental impacts across different regions. The study evaluates both ISO 14067:2018 and IPCC-based methodologies for long-term scenarios, with particular emphasis on end-of-life treatment differences between waste-to-energy (WtE) and landfilling for both treated and untreated wood products. Scenarios were modelled to cover the widest possible range of cases, including parameters that varies according to product type and waste legislation in different European countries. The geographical disaggregation of impacts reveals significant regional variations, with production impacts concentrated in Indonesia, transport impacts distributed across oceanic routes. Temporal analysis emphasizes the critical importance of accounting for timing in carbon sequestration and release cycles, particularly in the context of international climate commitments such as the Paris Agreement. The research demonstrates that methodological choices in carbon accounting can fundamentally alter environmental impact conclusions, with implications extending from product-level assessments to policy-level decisions regarding sustainable material promotion.

In this work, a comparative life cycle assessment of the solvothermal synthesis of zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-8) is reported. ZIF-8 is listed among the most representative structures of ZIFs, an emerging subclass of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). ZIF-8 is commonly synthesized through the solvothermal method, and the election solvents are currently N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF) and water, both allowing the production of highly crystalline ZIF-8 with a high specific surface area. Considering the recently introduced severe restrictions on the use of DMF as defined very recently by European Chemical Agency, an innovative synthetic procedure in the biobased and nontoxic glycerol carbonate (GlyC) was reported. This approach delivers mesoporous ZIF-8 with high crystallinity and high specific surface area. The present study suggests a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of the laboratory scale ZIF-8 synthesis, comparing the same process in DMF and GlyC in terms of their environmental impacts. The results help to demonstrate that the respect of the 7th principle of green chemistry (using GlyC instead of DMF) does not necessarily embody, at present, a sustainable choice.

Subaerial biofilms (SABs) are microbial communities that form on surfaces exposed to both air and periodic moisture and that can adapt to harsh environmental conditions like UV radiation, and fluctuating temperatures. On the one hand they can protect built surfaces by forming a barrier against environmental stressors, on the other they can also cause deterioration through biological weathering. The balance is complex and depend on a large number of factors. Unfortunately, only a small part of the complex multiscale network of physical, chemical and biological processes is captured by existing mechanistic model; this prompts for the involvement of phenomenological models. In this work we point at the modeling advantages offered by Bayesian Networks (BNs), Causal Networks and Targeted Learning (TL) in the study of the dual role of SABs.

The 17th Century Casa a Ponente of Palazzo Rocca Costaguta’s wall provided an opportunity for an evaluation based on a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach of conservation treatments aiming at removing biological colonization from built heritage surfaces. The investigated surfaces were historic plasters partially covered by a patchy green patina due to biofilm recolonization soon after a previous biocidal treatment. Areas of the biocolonized wall were treated by conservation professionals according to both conventional and “green” (i.e., exploiting natural active principles) biocidal products, including Preventol RI 50 (active substance benzalkonium chloride), Essenzio (active substance essential oregano oil), and hydrogen peroxide. Upon treatment, LCA analysis was conducted to evaluate the environmental impact of the different solutions, including a no-treatment option. LCA analysis was based on on-site investigations of the untreated wall surface with and without biofilm and following the biocidal treatment. The conservation treatment’s impact on the mineral substrate was based on digital microscopy, colorimetry, and water contact angle measurements via an innovative portable method. The results highlighted the impacts of the different biocidal treatments, which, in some cases, have not completely removed the biofilm and, in some cases, have altered the surface properties of the plaster. This pointed out the opportunity to re-think conservation strategy, including LCA analysis as a complementary tool to assess the environmental impact of the different conservation treatments and procedures.

Diversifying energy sources and managing waste biomass are two pressing contemporary issues. The new technology proposed in this study aims to address both by converting waste biomass into energy and fertilizer through the use of a biofuel cell (BFC). The purpose of this study is to assess the environmental impacts associated with this innovative technology through a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). To achieve the goal, the production and use of the cell were modelled, considering both laboratory-scale operations and industrial-scale approximations. The study explored alternative scenarios, such as sensitivity analyses involving different acids and bases, renewable energy sources, and heat recovery. Comparisons with conventional biomass waste treatments (anaerobic digestion and composting) demonstrated that the BFC technology remains competitive. To further improve the BFC’s environmental footprint, efforts should focus on reducing energy requirements and enhancing nutrient recovery during scale-up. These insights are crucial for advancing sustainable waste treatment technologies and maximizing the potential of discarded biomass in an environmentally friendly manner.

Pharmaceuticals are among the most challenging products to assess by life cycle assessment (LCA). The main drawback highlighted by LCA practitioners is the lack of inventory data, both regarding the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) precursors (upstream) and the details concerning the downstream phases (use and end of life). A short critical review of pharma-LCAs found in the literature is here proposed, with discussion of several tools and models used to predict the environmental impacts derived from the life cycle of pharmaceuticals, emphasizing current strengths and weaknesses, and exploring the possibilities for improvements. The case of antibiotics is selected as a representative class of pharmaceuticals, due to their massive use worldwide and the growing related issue of antimicrobial resistance enrichment, which is generally not included in most of LCAs. Also, we comment on drafting product category rules (PCRs) in the relevant field to develop standard methodologies and enhance the comparability of the studies, ultimately advocating collaboration with companies and improving inventory data quality and availability for the whole value chain of products.

Currently, less than 1% of rare earth elements (REEs) are recycled due to the limitations of conventional recycling methods. Waste streams containing NdFeB magnets, such as household appliances, industrial motors, electric vehicle (EV) motors, and consumer electronics, are typically processed using traditional recycling techniques. These methods often involve shredding the material and applying separation techniques like magnetic and eddy current separation, which are designed to recover materials such as copper, iron, aluminum, plastic, and precious metals. However, they do not effectively recover REEs. Studies have shown that the ferrous fraction from typical recycling facilities for ferrous waste contains a REEs concentration which is too low to be economically viable for REE recovery. This creates a pressing need of designing recycling processes able to valorize the REEs fraction. A critical step in these processes is the demagnetization of NdFeB magnets, without which their efficient separation from the waste stream would not be feasible. Demagnetization is necessary when processing waste through mechanical shredding and separation to prevent the strong magnetism of NdFeB magnets from causing operational issues. Issues such as the formation of “meatballs” (clusters of magnetic material) and magnets sticking to ferromagnetic parts of machinery are common when magnets remain magnetized. Moreover, demagnetization facilitates the separation of magnets from non-ferromagnetic fractions in the waste stream. Demagnetization can be achieved using different techniques. One approach is hydrogen decrepitation, where hydrogen is absorbed by the NdFeB magnet, leading to brittle hydride formation that breaks down the magnet into a fine powder, which simultaneously induces demagnetization. Alternatively, thermal treatment can be used to raise the temperature of the magnets above their Curie temperature, at which point they lose their magnetic properties. This study focused on the thermal demagnetization of NdFeB magnets contained within electric motors. Using an experimental design approach, we developed demagnetization curves that correlate the degree of demagnetization with key parameters such as temperature and treatment duration. The study also examined potential differences in demagnetization behavior when magnets were treated as part of an assembled motor versus individually. NdFeB magnets were subjected to varying temperatures and time intervals to generate these demagnetization curves, providing insights into the behavior of both individual magnets and those integrated within motor assemblies. Notably, it was observed that the average degree of demagnetization achieved varied depending on whether magnets were treated within the rotor or individually. This suggests that the assembly within the rotor affects the demagnetization response, resulting in a slower demagnetization process. The experimental design (DOE) method enabled the development of a predictive model that estimates the degree of demagnetization based on time and temperature parameters. Results indicated that the coefficient for temperature (T) in the model consistently exerted a stronger influence on demagnetization than the coefficient for time (t), suggesting that temperature has a greater impact on demagnetization process.

Many studies aimed at estimating the environmental impacts associated with the food sector, but most of the existing developed indicators limited the problem only to the climate change, while it is well-known that the food sector may extend its influence on a wider spectrum of environmental categories. In this work, the Life Cycle Assessment was applied to a list of 1001 recipes for an Italian food canteen, prepared with more than 150 ingredients, with the purpose to develop a comprehensive environmental indicator (namely, SQUIID: Simplified Quantitative Impact Indicator for food Dishes). SQUIID includes in the evaluation the environmental categories showing a significant contribution (at least 86%) to the single score, i.e., global warming potential (GWP), particulate matter formation, land occupation, human non-carcinogenic toxicity and water consumption. The list of recipes was then analyzed under three perspectives: mass, GWP and SQUIID. The mass perspective indicates that the list of recipes contains a fairly balanced amount of ingredients, pointing out a remarkable diversification of the menu in the examined canteen. Concerning GWP and SQUIID spheres, meat-based and fish-based recipes resulted the main impacting ones (77% for the former and 73% for the latter), demonstrating to be the two classes mainly responsible for the environmental impacts observed, even if the vegetarian and vegan food dishes represent the 41% in mass. Meat-based dishes represent the 42% of the entire list of recipes in case of GWP, when adopting SQUIID, their overall contribution is reduced to the 35%. In fact, the main percentage of SQUIID is instead attributed to fish, raising from 31% (GWP) to 43%. Such variation demonstrated the relevance of the four additional selected categories for a final and comprehensive evaluation, proving that GWP-based indicators provide to the consumer only a partial representation of the environmental issue.

The packaging sector and the environmental impacts stemming from its various materials and applications are currently at the forefront of scientific and political debate. To estimate the environmental impacts associated with raw materials and identify the role of industrial processes, this study presents a cradle-to-grave Life Cycle Assessment applied to two distinct packaging formulations for chocolate bars, namely oriented polypropylene-based and paper-based packaging. The product systems related to the two alternatives were compared by focusing on the contribution of each resource input and emission of the production phase, to identify respective environmental trade-offs and potentials for future improvements throughout the life cycle. Our study also proposes a laboratory-based approach to develop robust assumptions concerning the modeling of end-of-life material treatment and provide support to decision-making toward environmentally sustainable waste management practices. From the outcomes, a relative preference emerges for paper-based packaging, from a minimum of 10 to a maximum of 16 out of 18 environmental categories, depending on the evaluated scenario. The hotspot analysis highlighted a significant influence of the processing phases, with raw materials being generally characterized by lower percentage contributions to the final impact. In conclusion, the findings underscore the importance of considering the entire life cycle when assessing packaging sustainability. Moreover, the proposed laboratory approach offers valuable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders to optimize end-of-life strategies and minimize the overall environmental footprint of packaging materials.

The fashion industry presents a significant social role, employing millions of people, but it also contributes to resource depletion, ecosystem stress, and climate change. Consequently, sustainability within this sector has garnered increased attention. As part of the fashion sector, the footwear industry is also facing this challenge. With over 23.9 billion shoes produced annually, waste management in this sector presents significant environmental hurdles. In this case study, material flow analysis and life cycle assessment methodologies were adopted to identify and quantify waste flows, their dynamics, and the potential environmental impacts related to one of the main fashion footwear districts in Italy. The results identify opportunities for improving the recovery and recycling processes, especially concerning leather, a key component of shoes contributing to over 30 % of various environmental categories. It was also highlighted that the footwear industry's path to sustainability includes legislative progress, improvements in waste management, and collaboration among stakeholders.