The research project “Torrefaction of woody biomasses as energy carriers for the European markets” was carried out within the Tekes BioRefine programme in 2010–2012 and was coordinated by VTT. The main objective of the project was to create a discussion platform and collate basic information for the Finnish industrial stakeholders involved in developing torrefaction technology or planning to include torrefied biomass in their fuel supply for energy production. Given the availability of torrefaction pilot facilities in Europe, it was decided at an early phase of the national torrefaction research project not to build and operate separate pilot equipment, and thus save time and money. Experimental research was conducted in cooperation with ECN, The Netherlands. Finnish wood chips and crushed forest residue were tested at different torrefaction temperatures in the PATRIG torrefaction test rig with great success, and large quantities of torrefied wood chips and pellets were produced. CFD simulation work was carried out at VTT to investigate the feasibility of torrefied fuels to replace part of the coal. From the combustion point of view it seems feasible to replace coal by torrefied wood biomass with shares up to 50% by weight. Basic, small-scale experiments were carried out to compare torrefied wood pellets with conventional wood and straw pellets with regard to their handling and storage properties. The experiments showed that the torrefied pellets are clearly more hydrophobic than wood and straw pellets and do not disintegrate completely on exposure to water. A study on dust explosion and self-ignition characteristics indicated that the torrefied dust does not differ significantly from the normal biomass dust, but is clearly more reactive than coal dust. Commercial development of torrefaction is currently in its early phase. The current general view is that most of the demonstration plants have technical problems, which have delayed their commercial operation. The market is expected to move forward but the available public information is very limited, especially concerning the technologies used and volumes produced. Woody feedstocks will be the main raw material source. The utilisation rate of forest industry residues and by-products is relatively high in the EU and wood supply in Central Europe remains more or less stable, hence the price of the raw material is at a fairly high level. The utilities’ capability to pay for the product depends mainly on the national feed-in tariffs of green electricity. The energy price for the user is at least twice as high as that of coal.

Drying is a major and challenging step in the pre-treatment of biomass for production of second generation synfuels for transport. The biomass feedstocks are mostly wet and need to be dried from 30 to 60 wt% moisture content to about 10-15 wt%. The present survey aims to define and evaluate a few of the most promising optimised concepts for biomass pre-treatment scheme in the production of second generation synfuels for transport. The most promising commercially available drying processes were reviewed, focusing on the applications, operational factors and emissions of dryers. The most common dryers applied now for biomass in bio-energy plants are direct rotary dryers, but the use of steam drying techniques is increasing. Steam drying systems enable the integration of the dryer to existing energy sources. In addition to integration, emissions and fire or explosion risks have to be considered when selecting a dryer for the plant. In steam drying there will be no gaseous emissions, but the aqueous effluents need often treatment. Concepts for biomass pre-treatment were defined for two different cases including a large-scale wood-based gasification synfuel production and a small-scale pyrolysis process based on wood chips and miscanthus bundles. For the first case a pneumatic conveying steam dryer was suggested. In the second case the flue gas will be used as drying medium in a direct or indirect rotary dryer. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

BO(2)-technology, a new technology for biomass upgrading into commodity solid fuel, consists of an innovative torrefaction technology concept (mild temperature treatment between 200 and 300 degrees C) in combination with pre-drying (if needed) and pelletisation. It enables energy-efficient and cost-effective production of 2(nd) generation pellets with superior properties in terms of high energy density (1.5-2x conventional pellets), excellent grindability and water resistant nature (eliminating/reducing biological degradation and spontaneous heating, enabling outdoor storage). BO(2)pellets (TM) can be produced from a broad range of biomass streams, such as wood chips, agricultural residues and various residues from the food and feed processing industry. ECN now operates a 50-100 kg/h pilot plant and has teamed up with industrial partner Econcern to bring BO(2)-technology to the market.

S ECN BIOMASS TO THE “2ND WORLD CONFERENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EXHIBITION ON BIOMASS FOR ENERGY AND INDUSTRY” 10-14 May 2004, Rome, Italy P.C.A. Bergman L.W.M. Beurskens H. Boerrigter A.R. Boersma A. Bos M.K. Cieplik B. Coda E.P. Deurwaarder A. van der Drift R. Egging K. Hemmes F.H. Horlings J.C. Jansen J.H.A. Kiel R. Korbee T.J. de Lange C.M. van der Meijden M. Mozaffarian A.B.J. Oudhuis J.P. Ouweltjes S.V.B. van Paasen J.R. Pels L.P.L.M. Rabou R. van Ree J.H. Reith G. Rietveld E. van Thuijl H. den Uil M.A. Uyterlinde F. Verhoeff R.W.A Wilberink E. van Zessen R.W.R. Zwart with contributions of: R. Emmen, J.W. Könemann : Dahlman Industrial Group H. Klein Teeselink, H. Ratering : HoSt Engineering G. Dongyan, S. Li : Shandong Academy of Sciences J. Balke, H.C.P. Matthijs, L.R. Mur, E. Snelder : Universiteit van Amsterdam K. van Kilsdonk : IVAM Research and Consultancy on Sustainability BV S.J.J. Lips : Agrotechnology and Food Innovations B.V. A.B. van der Giesen : GIPEC B.V M.J. Prins, K.J. Ptasinski, F.J.J.G. Janssen : Eindhoven University of Technology R. Bär : BETH J. Good : Verenum H.A.M. Knoef : BTG Biomass Technology Group T. Liliedhal : Kungl Tekniska Högskolan (KTH) J.P.A. Neeft : Novem I. Summerfield : Casella Group M. Suomalainen : Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) C. Unger : Fraunhofer UMSICHT U. Zielke : Danish Technological Institute Checked/Approved/Issued by: H.J. Veringa ECN Biomass

SummaryNoninvasive methods of determining cardiac output (by thoracic electrical bioimpedance) and arterial pressure (by intermittent oscillometry) were used to record minute‐by‐minute changes in heart rate, mean arterial pressure, stroke volume, cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance following induction of general anaesthesia and laryngoscopy and intubation in 60 healthy female patients who were either unpremedicated, or premedicated with temazepam or papaveretum‐hyoscine. Anaesthesia was induced with a sleep dose (3–5 mg.kg−1) of thiopentone and maintained with 70% nitrous oxide in oxygen with 0.5–1% enflurane. Tracheal intubation was facilitated by administration of vecuronium 0.1 mg.kg−1. Mean arterial pressure and cardiac output decreased maximally 5 min after induction in all premedication groups by mean estimates of 21–25% and 14–22% respectively. Heart rate increased initially one minute after induction, but decreased to less than the baseline value 5 min after induction. Systemic vascular resistance was unchanged. The stimulus of laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation was accompanied by a significant pressor response and tachycardia one minute after intubation (with mean increases in mean arterial pressure and heart rate of 29–34% and 22–33% respectively). The increase in mean arterial pressure was secondary to an increase in systemic vascular resistance (36–57%), and was accompanied by a decrease in stroke volume (– 25 to –31%). These changes were significant in all three groups. Cardiac output decreased only in unpremedicated patients. There were wide variations in the different haemodynamic indices. The 5th and 95th centiles for the decreases in mean arterial pressure and cardiac output during induction were –17 to –26, –21 to –33, and –21 to –35mmHg, and –0.7 to –2.0, –0.7 to –2.3, and –0.2 to –1.31.min−1 respectively in unpremedicated patients and those premedicated with papaveretum‐hyoscine, or temazepam. Corresponding values for increases in mean arterial pressure and systemic vascular resistance, and decreases in stroke volume following laryngoscopy and intubation, were 16 to 33, 16 to 31.5, and 15 to 31 mmHg; 5.0 to 8.6, 3.5 to 10.2, and 4.3 to 7.8 mmffg.min.−1; and –19 to –31, –11 to –32.5, and –9 to –21 ml respectively.

The performance and reproducibility of the BoMED NCCOM3 thoracic electrical bioimpedance cardiograph (TEB) has been evaluated in volunteers and patients. In resting supine volunteers, we determined the coefficient of variability over short time periods (30 min) and over several days, and examined the effects of differences in electrode type and electrode placement. The mean (range) intra-subject coefficients of variation (CV) for thoracic fluid index (TFI) and stroke volume (SV) were 1.0% (0.4-1.8%) and 4.7% (2.1-8.5%), respectively over a 30-min period. The corresponding CV were 5.6% (2.3-10.9%) and 10.9% (6.1-14.8%) for measurements made at rest on four separate occasions. Use of different electrode types (RedDot and Medicotest) resulted in differences in TFI (P less than 0.01), but not in mean values for SV or cardiac output (Q); their use in individual subjects revealed differences of up to 20% in SV and Q. Alterations in electrode placement by 5 cm in the horizontal and diagonal planes produced no significant changes in TFI, SV or Q; changes in the longitudinal plane produced a graded change. Increases of 5 cm and 10 cm in thoracic length produced mean increases in TFI of 9.8% and 39.8%, respectively, and mean decreases in Q of 8.4% and 16.7% and SV of 7.5% and 15.8%. TEB measurements of Q and SV were compared with thermodilution (TD) in 16 intensive care patients. Mean (SEM) Q by TEB was 5.63 (1.10) litre min-1 compared with TD 4.38 (0.72) litre min-1 (P less than 0.01).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

There is a variable delay between a reduction in alveolar PO2 and the decrease in arterial oxygen saturation recorded on a pulse oximeter. The decrease in arterial oxygen saturation in response to disconnexion of a paralysed patient from the breathing system, oxygen supply failure with continued mechanical ventilation and disconnexion of the fresh gas supply to Mapleson D and circle absorption breathing systems were studied by simulations on the MacPuf computer model of the cardiorespiratory system. The simulations revealed that there were marked differences between the rate of arterial desaturation which resulted from each of the three types of oxygen supply failure and that arterial oxygen saturation may reach dangerous levels before a pulse oximeter alarm is activated.

BO2-technology is a new technology for biomass upgrading into commodity solid fuel. It consists of an innovative torrefaction technology concept (mild temperature treatment between 200 and 300 °C) in combination with pre-drying (if needed) and pelletisation. It enables energyefficient and cost-effective production of 2 generation pellets with superior properties in terms of high energy density (1.5-2x conventional pellets), excellent grindability and water resistant nature (eliminating/reducing biological degradation and spontaneous heating, enabling outdoor storage). BO2pellets can be produced from a broad range of biomass streams, such as wood chips, agricultural residues and various residues from the food and feed processing industry. ECN now operates a 50-100 kg/h pilot plant and has teamed up with industrial partner Econcern to bring BO2-technology to the market.