AbstractIt is well established that the left hemisphere is dominant for oral language production in the majority of neurotypical individuals, while a more symmetrical pattern of activation is observed in cases of conditions such as dyslexia. Cerebral lateralization of written language, however, despite the critical role of writing in education and in everyday communication and the fact that children with dyslexia present with writing difficulties, has been investigated by only a few studies, none of which has sampled children, neurotypical or not. Here we aim to investigate the cerebral lateralization of written language in 20 children at risk for dyslexia compared with 20 neurotypical children using functional transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. We hypothesized that the linguistic component of writing would be less lateralized in children at risk for dyslexia compared with controls; however, there was not enough evidence to either confirm or reject this hypothesis. Furthermore, we explored the correlation between writing competence and the cerebral lateralization of the linguistic component of written language, which, as hypothesized, were not correlated. These findings suggest that, in middle childhood, cerebral lateralization for the linguistic component of writing may not be a biomarker of dyslexia risk, highlighting the need for further research into alternative neural or cognitive mechanisms underlying reading difficulties. (Preregistered Stage 1 protocol: https://osf.io/u54tk (date of in-principle acceptance: 1 December 2022).)

Teaching spelling is particularly challenging for children with, or at risk for, Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD). The present study examined the effectiveness of a structured instructional intervention designed to improve spelling skills, vocabulary knowledge, and morphological awareness (MA) in Greek third-grade students receiving special education support. A pretest–intervention–posttest experimental design was implemented, with a total of 72 students randomly assigned to either an experimental group (n = 39) or a control group (n = 33). The four-week intervention was based on principles of Direct Instruction with systematic scaffolding and incorporated a modified version of the Morphological Processing Spelling Approach (MPSA). Standardized measures of spelling, MA and vocabulary knowledge were administered before and after the intervention to assess students’ progress. Results from repeated-measures ANOVAs showed that students in the experimental group demonstrated significantly greater improvement than those in the control group in text-level spelling, grammatical and historical spelling. Improvements in isolated word spelling were comparable across groups. Regression analyses further indicated that neither MA nor vocabulary knowledge predicted spelling performance at the baseline level. Overall, the findings provide strong support for the effectiveness of structured and direct instruction for enhancing spelling development among children at risk for or with SLD, highlighting its value regardless of their initial competence.

Teaching reading and writing strategies presents significant challenges for students with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD). This research project outlines a 28-hour integrated intervention program that focuses on cognitive and metacognitive strategies for improving Reading Comprehension (RC) and Written Expression (WE) in Greek 5th and 6th graders with SLD. The program was implemented by 19 resource room teachers (experimental and comparison groups) utilizing the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) instructional approach, with an additional 14 resource-room teachers teaching the control group. The participants were divided into three groups: an Experimental Group comprising 38 students (taught RC + WE), a Comparison Group with 36 students (taught only WE), and a Control Group with 44 students (business as usual). The study followed a pre-midpoint-post-maintenance experimental design. All students were assessed with reading comprehension, written expression, and cognitive and metacognitive strategy knowledge measures. The results of Multilevel Random Effects Analysis (MREA) indicated that the Experimental Group outperformed the Control Group in reading comprehension and self-regulated strategies knowledge. Additionally, both the Experimental and Comparison groups exhibited statistically significant improvements in writing and metacognitive skills compared to the Control Group. These findings offer strong evidence highlighting the effectiveness of the integrated reading comprehension and written expression program for students with SLD. Additionally, the educational implications of these findings are discussed in detail.

Children with poor language competence frequently experience psychosocial risks, which could appear as behavioural difficulties. The present study investigated the relationship between pragmatic language skills and behavioural problems of first graders with Learning Difficulties (LD) at two assessment times, and examined whether pragmatic language characteristics could predict behavioural problems. It also explored differences in these variables between LD children and their Typically Developing (TD) peers and the changes that had occurred over 6 months. All were assessed on their pragmatic language skills, and their teachers completed a behavior rating scale. Results indicated intersections among pragmatic language skills and behavioral problems; however, no significant predictive relationship was found. An analysis of means for the two assessment points revealed significant improvements in pragmatic language and little change in behaviour problems. Children with LD had significantly poorer pragmatic language than children with TD, but there were no differences in behavior problems.

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) and Dyslexia frequently co-occur. Many studies suggest that children with Dyslexia may also struggle with oral language skills, while those with DLD may also face challenges in word decoding. Both groups of children typically exhibit deficits in phonological processing [phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), verbal short-term memory (VSTM)] and verbal working memory (VWM). Despite the increasing number of comparative studies, few have systematically examined these overlaps in children at the early stages of literacy acquisition, and few studies have systematically assessed all oral language subsystems. This study investigates: (a) differences and similarities among children with DLD, children at Risk of Dyslexia (RfD), and typically developing children (TD) in phonological processing (phonological awareness—implicit and explicit—VSTM, RAN), VWM, oral language, and word decoding; (b) patterns of performance across groups; and (c) correlations between phonological processing and VWM skills with oral language and word decoding. The participants were 45 first graders (Mage = 6.8), equally divided into three groups (DLD, RfD, and TD children). Both special groups (DLD, RfD) performed significantly worse than the TD group across nearly all measurements. DLD children showed pronounced oral language and VSTM deficits, while RfD children primarily struggled with decoding and explicit phonological awareness. Group-specific correlations emerged. The findings are discussed in light of the theoretical models of the relationship between DLD and Dyslexia taking into account the specific developmental stage.

Developing written expression is a challenging task for students with specific learning disabilities (SLDs). The current study describes a 28-hour novel writing intervention program for Greek 5th and 6th graders with SLD that focuses on cognitive and metacognitive written expression strategies. The resource room teachers used the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) instructional approach. Participants were divided into two groups: experimental (N = 36) and control (N = 44). The study was designed as a pre-while-post-follow-up experimental study. All students were assessed on written expression and cognitive and metacognitive strategy knowledge. The ANOVA results showed that the experimental group improved statistically significantly in writing and metacognitive skills compared to the control group, providing tangible evidence that writing can be taught effectively to SLD students. The educational implications of the related findings are also discussed.

IntroductionThis study investigates the confounding effects of reverse-coded items on the measurement of confidence in mathematics using data from the 2019 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS).MethodsThe sample came from the Saudi Arabian cohort of 8th graders in 2019 involving 4,515 students. Through mixture modeling, two subgroups responding in similar ways to reverse-coded items were identified representing approximately 9% of the sample.ResultsTheir response to positively valenced and negatively valenced items showed inconsistency and the observed unexpected response patterns were further verified using Lz*, U3, and the number of Guttman errors person fit indicators. Psychometric analyses on the full sample and the truncated sample after deleting the aberrant responders indicated significant improvements in both internal consistency reliability and factorial validity.DiscussionIt was concluded that reverse-coded items contribute to systematic measurement error that is associated with distorted item level parameters that compromised the scale’s reliability and validity. The study underscores the need for reconsideration of reverse-coded items in survey design, particularly in contexts involving younger populations and low-achieving students.

The purpose of the present study was to understand students’ school readiness as a function of student and teacher behaviors but also school size and class size using both linear and non-linear analytical approaches. Data came from 21,903 schools distributed across 80 countries as per the 2018 cohort of the PISA database. Results pointed to a preference for the Cusp model in that the relationship between school and class sizes with achievement proved to be best described by the non-linearity of the Cusp catastrophe model. The critical benchmarks were a school size of 801 students and a class size of 27 students for which increases beyond those thresholds were linked to nonlinearity and unpredictability in school readiness. For this reason, we suggest using the cusp catastrophe model from Nonlinear Dynamical Systems Theory (NDST) to understand more fully such complex phenomena.

The current meta-analysis aims at identifying the most effective interventions for students with Learning Disabilities (LD) in improving writing expression over the last 40 years. Specifically, the main purpose of this review was to evaluate the efficacy of interventions focused on writing and integrated reading and writing for students in Grades PreK-12. The review examined a total of 39 experimental and quasi-experimental studies to determine which interventions demonstrated greater effectiveness in enhancing student outcomes. An average effect size (ES) was calculated for all 44 interventions. Additionally, average effect sizes were calculated for 12 intervention categories: sentence combining instruction, pre-writing activities and strategy instruction, process writing without modeling, adding self-regulation to strategy instruction, feedback, no feedback, goal setting, no goal setting, peer tutoring, no peer tutoring, self-efficacy and no self-efficacy. The findings demonstrated that the interventions consistently improved students' writing quality, with the addition of self-regulation to strategy instruction proving highly effective. Moreover, it was found that multicomponent programs incorporating different practices demonstrated their effectiveness in enhancing written expression. Positive outcomes were obtained by implementing interventions into practice in small groups through systematically organized sessions and encouraging cooperation between researchers and educators.

The purpose of the present study was to test the efficacy and appropriateness of the 4-point response option of the Principal’s Goals Scale of the SASS (1999–2000) survey. Competing dichotomous models with various conceptualizations were constructed and tested against the original polytomous conceptualization. Participants were 8,524 principals from whom 64% were males and 36% females. Principals’ goals were assessed using a 6-item scale anchored across points reflecting proximity to achieving a goal. The original polytomous conceptualization was contrasted to a dichotomous two-pole conceptualization using a model with freely estimated discriminations (two-parameter logistic model, 2PL) as well as the Rasch model assuming equal discrimination parameters. Results indicated that the 2PL dichotomous model provided the most optimal model fit. Furthermore, item-related, and person-related estimates pointed to enhanced accuracy and validity for the dichotomous model conceptualization compared to the polytomous model. It is suggested that a dichotomous scaling system is considered in subsequent measurements of the scale as a means of enhancing the accuracy and validity of the measured trait.

The few reports on the language skills of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) offer conflicting evidence on whether they face significant challenges, and if so, whether these challenges are present in all aspects of language. Here, we investigated a sample of Greek-speaking children with ADHD ( n = 29) using a structural language (vocabulary, grammar) and a pragmatic language assessment. To ascertain the extent of strengths and weaknesses, we compared the performance of children with ADHD to typically developing (TD) peers ( n = 29) and also to children with developmental language disorder (DLD; n = 25), who face challenges particularly in structural language. As regards structural language, ADHD children performed significantly lower than their TD peers but significantly higher than the DLD group. In pragmatics, ADHD children performed numerically lower than any other group, but differences did not reach statistical significance. Children with ADHD face difficulties with language skills and especially with structural language. Sophisticated linguistic assessment is crucial, as it facilitates the identification of children with different challenges by measuring performances on distinct components. Language difficulties in ADHD should not be overlooked but must be evaluated thoroughly for more effective intervention planning.

This study aimed to investigate the ways subtypes of social withdrawal and dimensions of solitude are related to existential concerns in emerging adulthood. The links between social withdrawal/solitude and existential well-being are a highly neglected research issue. Participants were 774 emerging adults (50.4% males) aged 18–25 ( M = 20.07) from Greece. They completed measures on social withdrawal, solitude, authenticity, meaning in life, existential anxiety, and existential loneliness. We used structural equation modeling to analyze the data. Results indicated that shyness, avoidance, and isolation were associated with more existential concerns, whereas unsociability was associated with less existential concerns. The solitude dimensions—enlightenment, freedom, intimacy, and loneliness—were differentially associated with existential concerns, with enlightenment exhibiting the most existential benefits. Findings showed that existential well-being is dependent on emerging adults’ quality of withdrawal experiences and ability to make constructive use of solitude.

Η σχολική ετοιμότητα των παιδιών προσχολικής ηλικίας έχει αναγνωριστεί ως ένας σημαντικός προβλεπτικός παράγοντας για τη μετέπειτα σχολική τους προσαρμογή στο δημοτικό σχολείο. Παρόλο που η βιβλιογραφία έχει υπογραμμίσει τη σημασία της σχολικής ετοιμότητας, υπάρχουν ελάχιστα εργαλεία για την αξιολόγησή της στην Ελλάδα. Σκοπός αυτής της μελέτης ήταν ο σχεδιασμός και ο έλεγχος των ψυχομετρικών χαρακτηριστικών μιας νέας Κλίμακας Αξιολόγησης Σχολικής Ετοιμότητας για Παιδιά Προσχολικής Ηλικίας (Κ.Α.Σ.Ε.Π.Π.Η.). Η κατασκευή της Κλίμακας βασίστηκε στη σχετική βιβλιογραφία, στο ελληνικό Αναλυτικό Πρόγραμμα (Α.Π.) Σπουδών και στις αντιλήψεις των εκπαιδευτικών (νηπιαγωγών και δασκάλων της Α΄ Δημοτικού). Πραγματοποιήθηκε μια πρώτη μελέτη, στην οποία συμμετείχαν 24 νηπιαγωγοί που συμπλήρωσαν την Κλίμακα για 102 παιδιά 5-6 ετών, για να διερευνηθεί η δομή και αξιοπιστία της. Στη συνέχεια, σε δεύτερη μελέτη, 80 νηπιαγωγοί (40 Γενικής Αγωγής και 40 Ειδικής Αγωγής) συμπλήρωσαν την Κλίμακα για 280 παιδιά 5-6 ετών (200 τυπικής ανάπτυξης και 80 παιδιά με Ειδικές Εκπαιδευτικές Ανάγκες), για να επιβεβαιωθεί η δομή της Κλίμακας και να διερευνηθεί η συγχρονική εγκυρότητά της. Την επόμενη χρονιά, 280 παιδιά επαναξιολογήθηκαν ως προς τις αντίστοιχες δεξιότητες στην Α΄ Δημοτικού για να διερευνηθεί η προβλεπτική εγκυρότητα της Κλίμακας. Από τις αναλύσεις προέκυψαν δύο βασικοί παράγοντες (μαθησιακές και κοινωνικο-συναισθηματικές δεξιότητες) με έξι επιμέρους παράγοντες (προφορικός λόγος, δεξιότητες γραμματισμού, μαθηματικές δεξιότητες, κινητικές δεξιότητες, δεξιότητες αυτορρύθμισης και αυτονομίας & κοινωνικής αλληλεπίδρασης). Επίσης, αναδείχθηκε ότι η Κλίμακα χαρακτηρίζεται από υψηλά επίπεδα αξιοπιστίας καθώς και συγχρονικής και προβλεπτικής εγκυρότητας. Τα αποτελέσματα συζητούνται ως προς την αξιοποίηση της Κ.Α.Σ.Ε.Π.Π.Η. από τις/τους νηπιαγωγούς και άλλους ειδικούς για την αξιολόγηση της σχολικής ετοιμότητας των παιδιών στο νηπιαγωγείο.

In educational and clinical settings, few norm-referenced tests have been utilized until now usually focusing on a single or a few language subcomponents, along with very few language rating scales for parents and educators. The need for a comprehensive language assessment tool for preschool and early school years children which could form the basis for valid and reliable screening and diagnostic decisions, led to the development of a new norm-referenced digital tool called Logometro®. The aim of the present study is to describe Logometro® as well as its psychometric characteristics. Logometro® evaluates an array of oral language skills across the different language domains such as phonological awareness, listening comprehension, vocabulary knowledge (receptive and expressive), narrative speech, morphological awareness, pragmatics, as well emergent literacy skills (letter sound knowledge and invented writing) in Greek-speaking 4–7 years old children. More specifically, Logometro® has been designed in order to: (a) map individual language development paths as well as difficulties, (b) provide a descriptive profile of children’s oral language and emergent literacy skills, and (c) assist in the identification of children who are at risk for Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) or Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD). The sample consisted of 926 children aged from 4 to 7 years, which were recruited from diverse geographical provinces and represented a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds in Greece. Eight hundred participants were typically developing children (Nboys = 384 and Ngirls = 416), 126 children (NSLI = 44 and NSLD = 82) represented children with Special Educational Needs, and 126 children were typically developing peers matched for gender and age with the clinical groups. The administration lasted 90 min, depending on the participant’s age and competence. Validity (construct, criterion, convergent, discriminant, and predictive) as well as internal consistency and test–retest reliability were assessed. Results indicated that Logometro® is characterized by good psychometric properties and can constitute a norm-referenced battery of oral language and emergent literacy skills. It could be used to inform the professionals as well as the researchers about a child’s language strengths and weaknesses and form the basis on which they can design an appropriate individualized intervention if needed.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of Raven’s colored progressive matrices by estimating the presence of pseudo-guessing and pseudo-carelessness. Participants were 1127 children from ages 5 to 11. Guessing and carelessness were assessed using the lower and upper asymptotes of the 3PL and 4PL item response theory (IRT) models, respectively. Optimal model fit was judged using difference loglikelihood tests and information criteria. Results indicated that guessing, but not carelessness, were evident in the AB and B forms of the CPM, with successful guessing being more prevalent in the AB form. It is concluded that nonverbal IQ estimation in CPM should include variable estimation methods so that aptitude scores are estimated with the highest possible accuracy.

The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that goal orientation is associated with divergent forms of emotional reactivity under frustration. Goal orientations were assessed using bifurcations of performance goals described earlier. Physiological stress levels were measured via a blood volume pulse analysis after individuals were subjected to a computerized Stroop task using a malfunctioning mouse to induce enhanced frustration. The results indicated that performance-avoidance goals were associated with the highest levels of emotional reactivity, with normative outcome goals being significantly more detrimental than ability goals. We concluded that the motivation to avoid failure or to outperform others is the most detrimental determinant of stress and needs to be avoided by all means. Instead, it is suggested that educators emphasize performance using personal best outcomes or by valuing engagement, deep processing and task completion.

The development of spelling skill is an intricate process for children with or at risk of Specific Learning Disabilities and requires targeted interventions. This problem exacerbates in the Greek orthographic system owning to its high complexity. The current study presents a novel spelling intervention program for Greek 3rd graders at risk of Specific Learning Disabilities, which was founded upon the principles of Direct Instruction and encompassed evidence-based practices. The effectiveness of the proposed 16-h intervention program was investigated via its implementation in Greek resource rooms by the corresponding teachers. The children were randomly assigned into the intervention (n = 39) and the comparison group (n = 34). Standardized tests were used for children's assessment during pretests, post-tests I, and post-tests H. Importantly, the results obtained via ANOVA demonstrated that the children of the intervention group showed a statistically significant improvement in spelling contrary to the comparison group. Additionally, the impact of the intervention program on children's decoding and fluency skills was examined, yielding enhanced, yet, no statistically significant outcomes. The educational implications of the related findings are also discussed. Overall, the proposed study provides tangible evidence that spelling can be taught effectively to SLD children.