European policies target reduced packaging waste and increased recycling by 2030. While paper-based options offer potential recyclability, cured meats pose challenges due to the multi-material packaging required for their extended shelf-life. This study evaluates the environmental and economic sustainability of three packaging systems, i.e. plastic multi-material (MM), paper-based (PA) and a hybrid plastic and paper-based packaging (HY) for sliced cooked ham, considering both direct and indirect effects through the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. The functional unit was one packaging unit containing 100g of sliced cooked ham.The MM was the most environmentally sustainable overall, as its longer shelf-life reduced food waste. The HY system had the highest environmental impact, mainly due to its shorter shelf-life and the environmental burden of combining paper and plastic. Paper-based systems had a lower environmental impact when focusing solely on the packaging life cycle due to paper’s recyclability and lower production burden. Considering the techno-economic analysis (TEA) of the three packaging, while PA and HY systems delivered marginally lower direct unit costs than MM, it retained the smallest share of value lost as waste per gram (0.135% (MM) vs 0.144% (HY) and 0.177% (PA)), confirming its higher economic robustness alongside its environmental lead.The study underscores the complexity of evaluating food packaging systems and highlights the importance of enhancing barrier properties in paper-based packaging to reduce waste. It advocates for a holistic design approach that prioritizes material selection, recyclability, and shelf-life extension, emphasizing that shelf-life is a critical factor in LCA.

This study aims to interlink the colloidal properties of lentil protein emulsions formulated with protein suspensions pre-treated with high pressure homogenization (HPH), thermal treatments (TT) and its combination (HPH + TT). Lentil protein suspensions were pre-treated with HPH (50 MPa), thermal treatment (120 °C for 60 s) or HPH followed by the TT. The physicochemical properties of these pretreated suspensions, as well as of emulsions prepared from them, were compared with those of an untreated sample. The particle size distribution of the suspensions was significantly reduced by HPH, with the volume-weighted mean diameter (D [4, 3]) decreasing from 3.63 μm (untreated) to 1.48 μm (HPH). TT and HPH + TT suspensions had a similar particle size distribution to the untreated sample, indicating a partial protein aggregation. The samples showed a transition from shear-thinning to near Newtonian behaviour when treated with TT and HPH + TT, which also enhanced their physical stability. The emulsion formulated with the pre-treated suspensions had a significantly lower particle size distribution compared to the untreated samples. Interestingly, the HPH + TT emulsion had the lowest particle size with a D [4, 3] of 1.07 μm and displayed the highest physical stability compared to the sample. The improved emulsion stability is likely due to enhanced enhanced physical properties in the protein suspensions, which increased their functionality and interfacial activity, leading to more effective stabilization of the oil droplets. These findings demonstrate that the combining HPH and thermal treatment can significantly improve the stability and functionality of high-solids lentil protein-stabilised emulsions, supporting their use in sustainable young child infant formula.

This study investigated the impact of high pressure homogenization (HPH) on the nonlinear rheological behaviour of pea, whey and pea:whey hybrid emulgels. Pea protein suspensions (5.5% protein) were pre-treated with HPH (6-600 MPa), prior to mixing with untreated whey proteins to form hybrid suspensions. Whey protein suspensions showed the smallest particle size (0.5 mu m) and high solubility (94%). In pea protein suspensions, HPH progressively reduced particle size and increased solubility, reaching 7.9 mu m and 94.4% at 100 MPa, respectively, whereas it promoted the formation of larger aggregates in hybrid suspensions, leading to larger particle size (80.1 mu m at 100 MPa) and a consistent solubility (57.6 +/- 1.6%). Rheological measurements demonstrated that whey proteins formed the strongest emulgels, while pea emulgels exhibited the highest storage modulus (G '), at 15 MPa. In contrast, hybrid emulgels exhibited greater gel strength at 100 MPa, with G ' (1 Hz) increasing from 5.5 kPa in the untreated sample to 14 kPa. Lissajous-Bowditch figures revealed that hybrid emulgels showed more gradual transitions from solid-to liquid-like behaviour with increasing strain amplitude, compared to untreated samples. The quantification of nonlinear responses using the Chebyshev decomposition method confirmed strain stiffening and shear thinning across all emulgels. Notably, hybrid emulgels showed accelerated increases in stiffening and thickening indices, indicating stronger gels at 100 MPa. This study demonstrated that HPH enables the formulation of hybrid emulgels with improved rheological functionality, providing new fundamental contributions in the understanding, development, and application of such a useful technology to hybrid protein systems.

The modulation of ionic strength represents an effective strategy to tailor the techno-functional properties of plant protein–based foods. This study investigated the effect of sodium chloride (NaCl) addition (0–0.4 M) to the gelation behaviour of pea protein-based emulgels. Increasing ionic strength up to 0.2 M promoted electrostatic screening, leading to the formation of an elastic, hard texture. This was reflected in larger and more uniformly distributed protein aggregates, along with a significant increase at 0.2 M in hardness (2.73 N) and elastic modulus (4.8 ∙ 10 ³ Pa) compared to 0 M emulgels (1.60 N and 1.36 ∙ 10 ³ Pa). At the molecular scale, 0.2 M enhanced proton mobility within protein- and starch-associated water domains, indicating greater network flexibility during gel formation. In contrast, increasing NaCl concentration from 0.2 to 0.4 M resulted in weakened mechanical properties, with reduced hardness and elastic modulus (2.06 N and 3.7 ∙ 10 ³ Pa, respectively), accompanied by lower proton molecular mobility as the displayed by the NMR population abundance, consistent with network tightening. Large amplitude oscillatory shear rheology revealed an earlier onset of energy dissipation and increased susceptibility to structural breakdown at 0.4 M. Strong correlations (r > 0.93) among springiness, yield point, and ¹H NMR relaxation parameters confirmed that springiness and molecular protons dynamics are driven by the same salt-dependent structural transitions. This study identifies an optimal ionic range for strengthening pea protein emulgels and provides a practical route for designing plant-based gel systems with tailored structure through controlled salt adjustment.

This study aims at investigating the fermentative performances of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus (Ldb), Streptococcus thermophilus (St) when used individually or in a blend on pea emulsion-based beverages. Microbial growth, physico-chemical properties (rheology, water molecular mobility, colour) and the volatile profile were investigated during or after fermentation guided by two selected strain (St 5149, Ldb 2214) and their blend. The results showed that strains St 5149 and the blend were able to grow in the pea protein emulsion beverage more quickly and with a shorter Lag phase (0.29-0.58 h) and to promote a faster gelation kinetic than Ldb 2214, as showed by impedometric and rheological analyses during fermentation. Water molecular mobility of the fermented systems measured by 1H NMR was also impacted by the different LAB strains, with a reduction in the amount of unbound water for sample fermented with St 5149. These differences, however, did not influence the colour parameters of the fermented beverage which had L* between 12.16 and 13.56, a* between 15.15 and 15.92, b* between 21.09 and 22.87. Notably, the aromatic profile of the fermented pea beverages suggested that selected LAB strains, particularly when used in a blend, effectively reduced the off-flavor notes associated with pea protein isolates. The results show that the selected LAB strains are able to positively impact the physico-chemical properties of pea fermented beverages and will pose the fundamental knowledge for the development of innovative, sustainable products alternative to both dairy and soy-based fermented products.

This study aims to investigate the environmental performance of two food packaging systems - a mono-material and a conventional multi-material, both with a modified atmosphere - for packing sliced cooked ham through the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. The functional unit was one unit of packaging that contained 100 g of sliced cooked ham. The assessment also accounted for the environmental impacts of potential food waste (PFW) linked to the shelf life of the packaging system. A sensitivity analysis was performed to evaluate an alternative end-of-life scenario incorporating recycling, in line with the European Plastics Strategy for a circular economy. Regarding the whole food packaging unit, the impact results show that the mono-material packaging system presented the highest environmental impact for five (global warming, ozone formation, terrestrial acidification, mineral resource scarcity and fossil resource scarcity) of the seven impact categories studied. This outcome is primarily attributed to the shorter shelf-life of the mono-material packaging system (21 days) compared to the multi-material system (35 days), which led to increased potential food waste (PFW) and a higher associated environmental footprint. Furthermore, the greater weight of the mono-material packaging (17.6 g) compared to the multi-material packaging (16.4 g) compounded its environmental impact during the packaging life cycle. This study highlights the environmental trade-offs between mono-material and multi-material food packaging systems for cured ham and provide invaluable insights for assessing potential innovative food packaging solutions for market introduction.

Cured meat products are largely consumed as packaged food; however, their single-use packaging is made up of multilayer and multi-material fossil-based plastics to achieve the desired shelf life. While advanced recycling technologies are being developed, in the existing practices, these materials cannot be processed together, and their sorting and treatment are not only technically complicated or even impossible but also very expensive. Single-use plastic packaging and its waste are growing environmental, climate, and health concerns, but the packaging is only responsible for a portion of the entire waste and carbon footprint in food-packaging systems. Hence, the transformative sustainability change can only be achieved when the entire food and packaging supply chain can be fully addressed, food shelf life is not compromised by more sustainable packaging solutions and effective packaging waste management practices are implemented. Therefore, priority should be given to designing packaging with a product-centric approach and circular mindset for putting an end to wasteful packaging from the beginning, rather than handling waste at the end and investing more in emerging recycling technologies. When designing more sustainable concepts and materials (e.g. reusable, recycled, compostable packaging) food safety should be the first consideration that makes food packaging a unique challenge for several stakeholders. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current market packaging trends, and promising packaging solutions for cured meat, including a detailed elaboration on the status quo in processed meat packaging that can assist the industry and other key players in the direction of fewer resources and less waste.

Lentil protein has generally good techno-functional properties; however, the limited solubility of lentil protein is a barrier to its wider use in food applications. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of high-pressure homogenisation (HPH), in the range 0-180 MPa, on selected techno-functional properties of lentil protein isolate (LPI) suspensions. The results showed that the low solubility (62.8 %) of LPI is mainly attributed to hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds. Treatment with HPH at 180 MPa was effective in increasing this solubility to 95.3 %. The weighted mean volume diameter of particles in the suspensions decreased from 10.7 +/- 1.1 (control) to 0.33 +/- 0.06 mu m (180 MPa), with this reduction in particle size attributed to physical disruptions/breakage of powder particles and of insoluble protein aggregates. Surface hydrophobicity increased from 614 to 1312 on HPH treatment, due to the exposure of previously-buried hydrophobic groups. The physical stability of the suspensions increased with increasing pressure, as evidenced by the separation rate decreasing from 8.55 % to 4.92 %/h for the control and 180 MPa treatments, respectively. These results indicate that HPH is a promising processing strategy to develop colloidally stable lentil protein suspensions with enhanced solubility and improved techno-functional properties for use of lentil protein ingredients in sustainable food products.

Standardisation of protein content is important in ensuring consistent composition and functionality of dairy powders, especially those made from a seasonal milk supply. This study investigated the effects of hybrid standardisation media, composed of lactose and permeate mixtures, on the physicochemical and functional properties of skim milk concentrates. The protein content target was 3.5 %, using five different permeate:lactose (P:L) ratios: 100P, 75P:25L, 50P:50L, 25P:75L, and 100L (at 8 % total solids (TS)), followed by evaporation to 52 % TS. Results showed that higher P:L ratios led to higher viscosity of skim milk concentrates and enhanced the heat stability of protein-standardised milk at pH in the ranges 6.4-6.7 and 7.0-7.2. Mineral analysis reflected higher concentrations of calcium, phosphorous, and trace minerals for higher P:L ratios, contributing to higher buffering capacity, increased micellar hydration and larger particle size post-evaporation. These findings demonstrate the potential of hybrid standardisation media to optimise processing conditions in milk powder production, balancing enhanced heat stability and viscosity development of milk concentrates.

This study investigates the enhancement of thermal and colloidal stability of lentil protein-stabilised emulsions through high-pressure homogenisation (HPH) pre-treatments. Lentil protein dispersions were homogenised at pressures ranging from 0 to 150 MPa and subsequently used to formulate emulsions with 29 % w/w total solids, simulating a young child formula. Results indicated that HPH significantly improved protein solubility, increasing from 55.7 % at 0 MPa to 93.2 % at 50 MPa. In the emulsion system, particle size analysis showed a reduction in oil globule size, with diameters of 1.4 mu m and 1.19 mu m for the 0 MPa and 150 MPa samples, respectively. Emulsions prepared from HPH pre-treated dispersions exhibited greater physical stability, with separation rates decreasing from 16.75 %/h (0 MPa) to 2.05 %/h (150 MPa). Rheological analysis showed that HPH pre-treatments led to low initial viscosities (28.30 and 22.56 mPa center dot s at 0 and 150 MPa, respectively) as well as lower final viscosity (60.52 and 34.88 mPa center dot s at 0 and 150 MPa, respectively) after thermal treatment at 90 degrees C for 2 min, compared with the untreated samples. Confocal laser scanning microscopy images showed a more homogeneous distribution of oil globules, and reduced flocculation, after the thermal treatment in emulsions prepared from HPH-treated dispersions. The results indicated an enhancement of the thermal stability of the HPH pre-treated samples, and this has been linked with the improved solubility of lentil protein following HPH treatment. These findings highlight the potential of HPH as an effective pre-treatment to enhance the technofunctional properties of lentil protein-stabilised emulsions, supporting the development of stable and sustainable plant-based food products.

BACKGROUND:This study investigated the physico-chemical properties of four cracker samples formulated with refined (RF) or whole wheat flour (WF), and enriched with olive leaf extract in either free form (OLE) or encapsulated form (MCR), as well as with butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) antioxidant, in comparison with non-enriched control samples (CTR). RESULTS:The MCR sample showed the highest total antioxidant capacity. Free OLE showed an intermediate value among all the tested samples and OLE reduced the peroxide value significantly in comparison with CTR. Encapsulated OLE was similar to the other formulations. The WF crackers showed lower moisture content, softer texture, and a lower impact of the natural antioxidant on color the parameters than the RF samples. The antioxidant type displayed little impact on the physical properties of crackers, with MCR showing the highest moisture content and texture consistency, and free OLE was comparable to CTR and BHT. Although free OLE revealed the greatest impact on the crackers' color, encapsulation significantly reduced this effect. Significant changes in proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) parameters were mainly associated with the higher fiber and lower gluten content of WF in comparison with RF; the type of antioxidant used affected the size of its impact. CONCLUSIONS:The results revealed the potential of encapsulated OLE as a natural antioxidant for the development of clean label snacks. © 2025 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

This study aimed to investigate the most important functional properties of multilayer and alternative packaging with improved sustainability specifically used for modified atmosphere (MAP) and chilled food products. A multilayer material with a thickness reduction, mono-PET, paper/PE-EVOH-PE, and a biopolymer for trays, together with a SiOx-coated PET, and a cellulose/PLA-based for lids were analyzed for their optical, tensile, and gas-vapor barrier properties, which were compared to those of conventional trays/lids (PET-EVOH-PE multilayer structures). All the alternative solutions showed good UV-light screening ability, together with high transparency in the visible range, and tensile properties greater than those displayed by conventional configurations. Lid alternative materials exhibited a significantly higher performance in terms of oxygen and water vapor barrier properties as compared to that displayed by conventional counterparts. The tray alternative solutions performed better than the conventional ones against CO2 and O2 permeation, with values lower than the detection limit of the instrument (0.01 cm3 m− 2 day− 1 and 0.25 cm3 m− 2 day− 1 for O2 and CO2, respectively). This study demonstrated the high potential of alternative packaging in replacing the current materials intended for storing highly perishable foods stored under MAP and cold storage.

SummaryThe growing global population has increased the protein needs and the combination of animal with plant proteins can be an effective strategy to meet future protein demand. This study aimed to investigate the impact of pH between 6.2 and 7.0 on the thermal stability of a 1:1 mixture of chickpea protein concentrate (CPC) and whey protein isolate (WPI), and their respective control. After heat treatment, CPC:WPI mixture showed an increase in viscosity (from 20.5 mPa.s at pH 7.0 to 110.8 mPa.s at pH 6.2, respectively), and particle size (from 5.7 to 56.5 μm at pH 7.0 and 6.2, respectively). The physical stability of the heat‐treated CPC:WPI mixture decreased, as the sediment increased from 3.3 mm at pH 7.0 to 7.8 mm at pH 6.2. This study highlighted the enhanced thermal stability of CPC:WPI at pHs closer to neutrality and offers valuable insights for the formulation of innovative plant protein‐enriched food.

This study aimed to investigate the gelling behavior of faba bean (FB) and chickpea (CP) flour between 10 and 20% (w/w) concentration at pH 3.0, 5.0, and 7.0. Both sources formed at pH 3.0 and 5.0 self-standing gels with 12% (w/w) of flour, while 16% (w/w) of flour was required to obtain a gel at pH 7.0. During gelling between 40 and 70 °C, a sharp increase of the elastic modulus G′ was observed in both flours, mainly due to water absorption and swelling of the starch, one of the major constituents in the ingredients. Increasing the temperature at 95 °C, G′ increased due to the denaturation of globulins and therefore the exposure of their internal part, which allowed more hydrophobic interactions and the formation of the gel. After cooling, both FB and CP gels displayed a solid-like behavior (tan δ ranging between 0.11 and 0.18) with G′ values at pH 3.0 and 5.0 significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those at pH 7.0, due to the lower electrostatic repulsions at pHs far from the isoelectric point. The rheological properties were supported by the water binding capacity values, confirming the better gels’ strength described by rheological analysis. These results will enhance our understanding of the role of legume flours in formulating innovative and sustainable food products as alternatives to animal ones.

In response to global challenges such as climate change and food insecurity, plant proteins have gained interest. Among these, lentils have emerged as a promising source of proteins due to their good nutritional profile and sustainability considerations. However, their widespread use in food products has been impeded by limited solubility. This study aimed to investigate the potential of high-shear mixing, a resource-efficient technique, to enhance lentil protein solubility and its functional properties. Red lentil protein isolate powders were rehydrated and subjected to a semi-continuous in-line high-shear treatment at 10,200 rpm for a timespan ranging from 0 to 15 min. The results highlighted a significant (p < 0.05) increase in solubility from 46.87 to 68.42% after 15 min of shearing and a reduction in particle size as a result of the intense shearing and disruption provided by the rotor and forced passage through the perforations of the stator. The volume-weighted mean diameter decreased from 5.13 to 1.72 µm after 15 min of shearing, also highlighted by the confocal micrographs which confirmed the breakdown of larger particles into smaller and more uniform particles. Rheological analysis indicated consistent Newtonian behaviour across all dispersions, with apparent viscosities ranging from 1.69 to 1.78 mPa.s. Surface hydrophobicity increased significantly (p < 0.05), from 830 to 1245, indicating exposure of otherwise buried hydrophobic groups. Furthermore, colloidal stability of the dispersion was improved, with separation rates decreasing from 71.23 to 24.16%·h−1. The significant enhancements in solubility, particle size reduction, and colloidal stability, highlight the potential of in-line high-shear mixing in improving the functional properties of lentil protein isolates for formulating sustainable food products with enhanced techno-functional properties.

Processing temperature has a significant influence on the composition and functionality of the resulting streams following microfiltration (MF) of skim milk. In this study, MF and diafiltration (DF) were performed at 4 or 50°C to produce β-casein (β-CN)-depleted and nondepleted (i.e., native casein profile) micellar casein isolate retentates, respectively. Microfiltration combined with extensive DF resulted in a 40% depletion of β-CN at 4°C, whereas no β-CN depletion occurred at 50°C. Microfiltration at 4°C led to higher transmission of calcium into permeates, with retentate generated at 4°C containing less total calcium compared with retentate generated at 50°C, based on the volume of retentate remaining. Higher heat stability at 120°C was measured for retentates generated at 4°C compared with those at 50°C, across all pH values measured. Retentates generated at 4°C also had significantly lower ionic calcium values at each pH compared with those generated at 50°C. Higher apparent viscosities at 4°C were measured for retentates generated at 4°C compared with retentates generated at 50°C, likely due to increased voluminosity of β-CN-depleted casein micelles. The results of this study provide new information on how changing the composition of MF retentate, by appropriate control of processing temperature and DF, can alter physicochemical properties of casein micelles, with potential implications for ingredient functionality.

The protein composition and digestive characteristics of four commercially available infant formulae (IF) manufactured using bovine (B-IF), caprine (C-IF), soy (S-IF), and rice (R-IF) as a protein source were examined in this study. Plant-based formulae had significantly higher crude protein and non-protein nitrogen (NPN) concentrations. Static in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of these formulae, and subsequent analysis of their digestates, revealed significantly higher proteolysis of B-IF at the end of gastrointestinal digestion compared to the other formulae, as indicated by the significantly higher concentration of free amine groups. Furthermore, differences in structure formation during the gastric phase of digestion were observed, with formation of a more continuous, firmer coagulum by C-IF, while R-IF demonstrated no curd formation likely due to the extensive hydrolysis of these proteins during manufacture. Differences in digestive characteristics between formulae manufactured from these different protein sources may influence the bio-accessibility and bioavailability of nutrients, warranting additional study.

Emulsion gels are gaining interest as fat replacers due to their benefits associated with calorie reduction and their versatility in a wide range of products. Their production process needs to be tailored to obtain the desired stability and physicochemical properties. This study investigated the effect of heat (70, 80, and 90 °C) and pressure (5, 10, and 15 MPa) to produce whey protein emulsion gels using a pilot-scale tubular heat exchanger equipped with a homogenization valve. Both temperature and pressure determined a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the rheological moduli, with the treated samples displaying a predominant elastic behavior. The treatments also showed an improved pseudoplasticity due to the significant reduction in the flow behavior index (p < 0.05). All the samples showed a bimodal particle size distribution; by increasing the temperature up to 80 °C, a reduction in Dv50 (50th percentile) values compared to the control samples was observed. At 90 °C, the Dv50 value increased because of coalescence and flocculation phenomena occurring during or immediately after processing. The greater aggregation and structural development obtained with stronger process conditions improved the stability of the emulsions. The results show the capability to produce gel emulsions with good physical properties that could be proposed as food ingredients to substitute fats in food products.

The demand for high-quality plant protein products is increasing and the aim of this work was to evaluate the impact of increasing the total solids content on the formation and stability of lentil protein stabilised oil-in-water emulsions. A series of emulsions were formulated using different proportions of total solids: 23, 26, 29, 32, and 35% (w/v). The emulsions were formulated using three ingredients—lentil protein, sunflower oil, and maltodextrin—which made up 15.85, 27.43, and 56.72% (w/w) of the total solids, respectively. The changes in apparent viscosity, particle size distribution, and colour during thermal processing were evaluated, with the physical stability investigated using an analytical centrifuge. The apparent viscosity of the solutions increased with total solids content (25.6 to 130 mPa.s−1), as did redness colour intensity (a* value increased from 5.82 ± 0.12 to 7.70 ± 0.09). Thermal processing resulted in greater destabilisation for higher total solids samples, as evidenced by greater changes in particle size, along with decreased redness colour. These results bring a better understanding of high total solids plant protein emulsions and factors affecting their stability, which could be used for the development of cost-effective and sustainable processing solutions in the production of plant protein young child formulae.