It is fashionable today to accuse pesticides and food additives as responsible worse toxic effects in the history of food safety and to consider that to be safe a food be "natural". In fact, in the history, there are a lot of epidemic diseases considered induced by natural food contaminants with victims and deaths (excluding voluntary poisoning). Epidemic diseases with symptoms similar to those induced by mycotoxins (ergot alkaloids, toxin, zearalenone) in cereals are described in the literature from antiquity to 20th century. Presence of heavy metals in food (lead, arsenic, mercury) are also considered as responsible of pathologies with symptoms characteristic of intoxication by these metals. The increase lifetime during the 20th century in developing countries has been induced by regulation hygiene and the work of expert committees in risk assessment. The first part of this describes from the antiquity to 20th century some epidemic diseases potentially induced food toxicant. In the second part, the history of establishment of principles in risk assessment in food safety such as ADI, by new food safety agencies during the 20th century first used food additives, then to pesticides and natural contaminants as mycotoxins and heavy are reviewed. (c) 2024 Soci & eacute;t & eacute; fran & ccedil;aise de nutrition. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

À l’heure où les pesticides, les additifs, sont accusés d’être responsables des pires effets toxiques de l’histoire, où un retour au naturel est vanté pour revenir à une alimentation saine, il est nécessaire de se retourner vers le passé et d’informer les acteurs de la santé que des contaminants naturels ont provoqué des épidémies avec de nombreux victimes et décès. Des épidémies dont les symptômes ressemblent à ceux induits par la présence de mycotoxines (ergot de seigle, T2 toxine, zéaralénone) dans les produits céréaliers sont décrites de l’Antiquité au XXe siècle. De même, la présence de métaux lourds dans l’alimentation (plomb, arsenic, mercure,) est considérée comme responsable de pathologies dont les symptômes sont caractéristiques d’intoxication aux métaux lourds. L’augmentation de la durée de vie des habitants des pays développés est largement due à l’apparition, au XXe siècle, de réglementations sur l’hygiène alimentaire et à la réflexion des différents comités d’experts sur l’évaluation du risque pour le consommateur de la présence de contaminants. Après une description non exhaustive de grandes épidémies potentiellement d’origine toxique depuis l’Antiquité, la conception et l’utilisation du concept d’évaluation du risque pour le consommateur, d’abord appliquée à des contaminants volontairement ajoutés aux aliments comme les additifs alimentaires, puis étendue aux produits phytosanitaires et aux contaminants naturels comme les mycotoxines et les métaux lourds, seront abordés.

The chemical composition of organic foods is not significantly different from that of conventional foods for the main nutrients. Organic cereals are poorer in protein and conventional vegetables are often richer in nitrate. The content of some antioxidant compounds is sometimes higher in organic fruits. Organic products from animal origin are richer in ω3-polyunsaturated fatty acids as a consequence of a diet generally based on more grass or green forages. Contents of pesticide residues in conventional vegetables, cereals, and fruits are almost always lower than the maximum limit and organic products also contain residues of allowed pesticides and natural toxins. Overall, there is no evidence that organic foods are more nutritious or healthier than conventional foods.

This chapter presents recently published studies on the long-term (more than 90 days) and adverse effects of feeding transgenic plants to animals. The GM feeds were derived mainly from marketed insect-resistant (Bt) and herbicide-tolerant varieties, while some studies tested experimental GM lines. These long-term studies and multi-generational studies are compared to 90-day studies that have already been performed. The possible need to update the current regulatory framework is also discussed.

The aim of this systematic review was to collect data concerning the effects of diets containing GM maize, potato, soybean, rice, or triticale on animal health. We examined 12 long-term studies (of more than 90 days, up to 2 years in duration) and 12 multigenerational studies (from 2 to 5 generations). We referenced the 90-day studies on GM feed for which long-term or multigenerational study data were available. Many parameters have been examined using biochemical analyses, histological examination of specific organs, hematology and the detection of transgenic DNA. The statistical findings and methods have been considered from each study. Results from all the 24 studies do not suggest any health hazards and, in general, there were no statistically significant differences within parameters observed. However, some small differences were observed, though these fell within the normal variation range of the considered parameter and thus had no biological or toxicological significance. If required, a 90-day feeding study performed in rodents, according to the OECD Test Guideline, is generally considered sufficient in order to evaluate the health effects of GM feed. The studies reviewed present evidence to show that GM plants are nutritionally equivalent to their non-GM counterparts and can be safely used in food and feed.

Meat or rather we should say ''meats'' are very diverse. This is due to the variety of animals, the different cuts and preparation methods that exist. We must also mention meat's nutritional richness: protein, essential amino acids, iron, heme iron, zinc, selenium, B-complex vitamins. Because of this, meat deserves its place in a well-balanced diet. In France, average meat consumption is moderate. And the majority of the population consumes less than the maximum amount recommended by public health authorities. Moreover, meat can be particularly recommended to some people with special nutritional needs such as teenage girls and menstruating women, pregnant women, athletes and elderly people. (C) 2010 Published by Elsevier Masson SAS on behalf of Societe francaise de nutrition.

The objective of this review was to update the important report published in 2003 by the French Agency for Food Safety (AFSSA) on the nutritional and safety evaluation of organically produced foods (AB). The conclusion of this report was that the differences in chemical composition with conventionally produced foods (AC) were small and without significance in a global diet. Several reports from organic agriculture associations have claimed a clear nutritional superiority of organic foods, as opposed to a systematic review published in 2009 on request of the UK Food Standards Agency. About a hundred references published since 2003 have been added and their analysis confirm the previous conclusions. No significant difference was seen for carbohydrates, major minerals and trace elements in any food and the observed tendency in favor of magnesium in some organic vegetables has not been confirmed. Protein content is lower in organic cereals, while nitrate content is sometimes higher in some AC vegetables (but the toxicity of plant nitrate is now questioned). Most studies on vegetables and fruits concern vitamin C and other antioxidant microconstituents. Higher levels of vitamin C and polyphenolic compounds, but lower levels of carotenoids, have often been found in AB, but there is no evidence of a beneficial effect on blood antioxidant status. Organic products from animal origin are often richer in some polyunsaturated fatty acids but this is due to a diet generally based on more grass or green forages and to the open-air farming. Other differences in lipid content of meat depend mainly on the age of the animal. Synthetic pesticide residues, not allowed in AB, are generally higher in AC vegetables and fruits but, for more than 95 %, remain lower than the maximal acceptable limit calculated with a very large margin of safety. Some secondary metabolites produced in AB plants are natural toxins and may be of health concern. All ''open-air'' produced foods, including organic meat, milk and eggs, are more exposed to chemical, microbial and parasitic contaminations from the environment. Overall, the small differences observed between organic and conventional foods have no practical significant effect on nutrition and health. (C) 2010 Societe francaise de nutrition. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Following the former paper where functional properties of some food/ingredients were remembered, the present paper summarizes the main steps of the scientific demonstration that allow to support the claimed functional properties. This demonstration is composed of four main elements: Identification and characterisation of the food/ingredient that will bear the claim; then building scientific arguments generated from human clinical studies using the relevant food/ingredient; selection and use of adequate markers in the key clinical studies and finally the analysis of the validity of the evidence. These demonstrated functional benefits for consumer, can support either the improvement of a physiological function or the reduction of some risks factors. However the first rule still remains to have a reasonable and diversified diet. A four-step scheme summarizes this paper for pedagogic purpose.

Cet article concerne l'evaluation de la securite sanitaire des seules plantes genetiquement modifiees (PGM). Les caracteristiques de ces PGM, leurs methodes d'obtention, les especes vegetales concernees et l'importance mondiale de leurs cultures sont decrites. Ces connaissances sont necessaires pour identifier les questions sanitaires potentielles qu'elles peuvent poser : risques lies aux proteines nouvellement produites en tres faible quantite dans la plante, risque allergene de ces proteines et risques d'effets non-intentionnels, non-previsibles de la transformation genetique. Le premier type de risque peut etre evalue par des methodes classiques de la toxicologie. Le risque allergene pour l'homme ne peut etre evalue avec une securite absolue, comme pour toute proteine alimentaire en raison d'une lacune de methode totalement adaptee. Les effets non-intentionnels sont evalues a partir d'une comparaison de la PGM avec la plante parentale dont on estime qu'elle beneficie d'une reputation d'innocuite. Aucun risque avere n'a pu etre mis en evidence pour les PGM actuellement objet d'une demande de mise sur le marche en depit des affirmations de certains dont les arguments ne sont scientifiquement pas fondes, meme s'ils sont largement repris par les medias.

The French and European structures of expertise in the field of the safety assessment of food evolved considerably during the last decade, like their work methods and the mode of selection of experts. The evolution at the international level is less perceptible. The conditions of exercise of expertise by the researchers, they also, changed: heavier load, multidisciplinarity, media and political pressures, criticisms of their impartiality. Only improvements of the conditions of exercise and of the judgment of these activities will lead to a stronger investment of the researchers of which it is however one of the missions.

The French and European structures of expertise in the field of the safety assessment of food evolved considerably during the last decade, like their work methods and the mode of selection of experts. The evolution at the international level is less perceptible. The conditions of exercise of expertise by the researchers, they also, changed: heavier load, multidisciplinarity, media and political pressures, criticisms of their impartiality. Only improvements of the conditions of exercise and of the judgment of these activities will lead to a stronger investment of the researchers of which it is however one of the missions.

Historiquement les liens entre alimentation et santé sont mentionnés depuis très longtemps. Les disettes ont conduit à privilégier les progrès technologiques pour assurer dans un premier temps la production et la conservation de quantité suffisante d’aliments. Après la couverture des besoins nutritionnels classiques par une alimentation équilibrée et diversifiée, on (re)découvre aujourd’hui les possibles rôles de l’aliment sur les fonctions physiologiques, le bien-être et la réduction de facteurs de risques de maladies. C’est le concept d′« aliment fonctionnel » qui a été exploré et formalisé par un vaste travail d’experts multidisciplinaires dans le cadre d’un programme EU (FUFOSE), et que nous résumons ici.

Historically the links between food and health have been reported a long time ago. Food scarcity triggered first progress in food technology to secure production and storage of enough food. After satisfying basics nutritional needs with a balanced and diversified diet, the potential role of food on physiological functions, well-being and reduction of risk diseases factor are (re) discovered. This is the concept of Functional Food. It has been explored and formalised by a large panel of multidisciplinary experts within a EU programme (FUFOSE) that we summarized.

The difference between the potential applications of genetically modified plants (GMP) and the reality of agriculture is very big; it is enough to compare the laboratory applications published in scientific reviews or the patents, with what is effectively cultivated today. The real applications concern almost exclusively four botanical species, soya, corn, cotton and canola and two types of modifications, herbicide tolerance and insects resistance. An attempt of prospective is presented here. It is based on the strategies of development of two of the biggest firms of vegetable biotechnologies, Monsanto and DuPont. The recent or future applications in human food or animal feed of GMP which concern fats are rare; they concerned modifications of content in lipids and especially composition in fatty acids essentially in soya, even corn. The current applications concern soya oils with lowered content in α linolenic acid which have hardly just been launched on the market. In longer term, soya oils containing n-3 long chain fatty acids should make their appearance on the market. But the major developments will always concern the agronomic characters of plants of large cultures, within the framework of an extensive agriculture in the big agricultural countries or in country in emergence as well as uses of PGM for energy production purposes.

Une étude des brevets récents, des publications scientifiques ainsi que des documents présentant les projets des firmes de biotechnologie constituent la base de cet article qui présente les perspectives de développement en alimentation humaine des organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM) présentant un intérêt nutritionnel. Si l’on trouve dans les brevets et les publications scientifiques des applications qui concernent l’amélioration ou l’enrichissement de la composition en macro- et micronutriments, ces applications restent curieusement à l’état de projets, très loin de la mise sur le marché. Les critiques aussi bien que les louanges dont sont l’objet les rares cas dont on pourrait envisager une mise en œuvre à moyen terme, comme le « riz doré », sont aussi injustifiées et excessives les unes que les autres. Les violentes polémiques autour des OGM risquent de handicaper le développement d’une technique puissante, qui n’est certes pas indispensable pour apporter une solution à l’éradication de la faim dans le monde, mais qui peut apporter des améliorations à la nutrition des populations, aussi bien des populations des pays en développement que des pays développés.

Two French scientific committees, the committee of biomolecular engineering (CGB) and the committee on pesticide toxicity (CT), decided to hold a common conference on the 27th and 28th September 2002. They have indeed each one to evaluate certain specific aspects of the risks related to the use of genetically modified plants (GMP), in particular herbicide tolerant, or resistant to insects because of secretion of their own insecticide. The participants in the conference compared their methodologies of evaluation of risks for human and animal health, underlined their strong points and their weaknesses. Rare specificities for the evaluation of the GMP were identified compared to food risk assessment. New methods, based on progress of genomics and post-genomics should make it possible to improve the sensitivity of detection of effects of low amplitude due to exposure not only to the GMP, but also to novel foods and new technologies.

Très longtemps, la recherche s’est focalisée sur ce qui pouvait être nocif dans les lipides et les composés de nature lipidique. L’objectif était de prévenir le risque associé à l’alimentation. Jusqu’à ce que, au milieu des années 1990, les Américains reconnaissent pour la première fois officiellement, dans un ouvrage intitulé « Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet » [10], qu’en matière de cancérogenèse notre alimentation comprend des composés certes à éviter mais a aussi des composés protecteurs. Ainsi, l’ensemble fait un équilibre relativement harmonieux puisque dans nos populations les paramètres de santé sont pour l’instant meilleurs qu’ils ne l’ont jamais été et que notre espérance de vie continue de croître. Autrement dit, notre alimentation n’est pas aussi dangereuse que certains voudraient le prouver. Nous sommes ainsi entrés dans une nouvelle approche des apports nutritionnels. Les aliments « fonctionnels » à la mode ne sont rien d’autre que les éléments d’une alimention réellement adaptée à nos besoins, nous permettant de résister le plus longtemps possible et en bonne santé aux agressions auxquelles nous sommes exposés. Dans la classe des composés lipidiques, de très nombreuses substances ont un effet positif en matière de santé. Certains ont un effet négatif, mais l’aliment « fonctionnel » peut être un aliment appauvri en ces substances. On peut s’orienter fermement vers ces aliments « fonctionnels », à la condition toutefois, pour que la recherche puisse se développer, que les allégations positives soient autorisées et puissent être utilisées par les industriels. Ce qui, sur le plan de la réglementation, n’est pas gagné.