Researchers at the University of Kentucky and West Virginia University have been studying problems associated with small rural water systems in the central Appalachian region of the United States for the last decade. After interacting with 145 small utilities, they have identified several problems that are likely similar to other small rural utilities in isolated and mountainous areas across the country. This paper provides both quantitative and qualitative metrics for use in evaluating these problems as well as possible recommendations for addressing such challenges. Among the problems discussed are system (distribution, collection) complexity, economic sustainability, infrastructure stability, workforce development, utility governance, and federal funding inequities and inefficiencies. Recommendations include regionalization, privatization and consolidation of systems, consolidation of services (centralized facility to serve multiple utilities), and various legislative proposals. Additional research is also recommended to identify specific indicators that can be used to identify or predict systems at risk or systems that have become unsustainable so that preemptive actions can be initiated to help prevent a continuing downward spiral toward system collapse or financial insolvency.

This study produced a comprehensive drinking water ozone-biofiltration evaluation by assessing performance at a newly commissioned facility with varying hydraulic and ozonation operations. In brief, 30 water quality, operational, and biological parameters were collected at 11 locations throughout the treatment train at least every other week for an entire year. Seasonal and environmental variation seemed to influence treatment performance more than operational changes (i.e., ozone or hydraulic re-rating). However, media adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an indicator of biomass, was sensitive to hydraulic variability. Organic carbon was identified as a reliable performance metric, particularly when total organic carbon (TOC) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) shared a strong linear relationship. Carboxylic acid removal also served as a useful long-term monitoring tool for assessing ozone-biofilter performance. This study establishes a critical benchmark for capturing the effects of intermittent ozonation, variable hydraulic loading, and seasonal transitions that utilities can utilize to better understand ozone-biofiltration processes in drinking water treatment systems.

Properly operated and maintained drinking water distribution system (DWDS) storage tanks are crucial for allocating safe drinking water, but varying operational processes and infrequent maintenance can result in water quality degradation, including disinfectant residual loss, sediment accumulation, bacterial growth, and potential contamination. This study assessed how the physical, chemical, and hydraulic characteristics of representative chlorinated DWDS tanks relate to bacterial communities in water and sediment; investigated water quality variation by depth within tanks; and explored the infrastructure and management characteristics influencing bacterial community composition in tanks. Bulk water and sediment samples were collected from seven tanks in a chlorinated DWDS system, and 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing was used to characterize the bacterial community. Bulk water and sediment communities were distinct, dominated by Alphaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria, respectively. Spatial variations as a function of distance from the treatment plant, tank-specific characteristics, and sediment accumulation were found to shape bacterial communities within tanks. Total coliforms and Escherichia coli were undetectable in all water samples, but genetic signatures indicated the presence of multiple genera associated with opportunistic pathogens (OPs). This study aims to establish a deeper understanding of the bacterial community within DWDS tanks and the impact that tank conditions and characteristics have on DWDS water quality.

This study inventories and identifies communication challenges faced by emergency management agencies in Central Appalachia as they engage communities in preparation, response and recovery efforts for extreme weather events (EWEs). Drawing on data from nine group discussions and guided by the Social Ecological Model, the analysis discerned an array of barriers to effective risk communication, originating from cultural, organizational, interpersonal and individual dynamics. It was found that a pervasive distrust of emergency agencies and broader climate governance, articulated through the notion of 'mining,' undermines organizational legitimacy. Conflicting messages from emergency sources with ambiguous or overlapping roles create confusion, numb and desensitize populations, and further erode source credibility. Poor internet and cellular connectivity constrain timely information delivery and exacerbate vulnerabilities. Additionally, the region's ingrained culture of 'riding-it-out', while a valuable source of organic resilience and self-efficacy, is seen by some emergency managers as 'stubbornness,' which leads to misalignment in risk communication. This study re-contextualizes these cultural attributes as essential 'social capital' and offers strategies to align communication practices and resources with local identity and agency needs. Findings contribute to culturally responsive approaches to participatory risk communication.

Action is urgently needed to address the aging water workforce in West Virginia, with more than half of the sector's workers in the state nearing retirement.Employee recruitment is a challenge, with most operators midway to late in their career, a lack of diverse backgrounds in the industry, and barriers such as pay and certification.Employee retention issues exist because many operators feel underpaid and underappreciated, with limited opportunities for advancement.

Multiple threats to surface water quality, including both fecal pollution and acid mine drainage (AMD) are frequently coincident in mining regions, such as parts of the Appalachian region of the U.S. While it has been established that AMD can have toxic effects to fecal bacteria in surface waters, there is also evidence that AMD may induce a viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state, leaving fecal bacteria undetectable by common standard methods. This study aims to better understand the occurrence of VBNC Escherichia coli in mining-impacted waters (MIW) through three objectives: (1) assess the relationship between MIWs and concentrations of culturable fecal bacteria, (2) compare standard methods for quantification of E. coli in MIW, and (3) investigate whether MIW can induce a VBNC state in E. coli. An analysis of historic data from the Deckers Creek and West Run Watersheds of West Virginia revealed a moderate correlation between pH and E. coli abundance determined via culture and enzyme-based methods. In samples collected from sites within the two watersheds impacted by historic mining activities, the E. coli uidA gene was measured via quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and found to be significantly more abundant than E. coli concentrations measured via culture or enzyme substrate coliform test. However, this discrepancy between methods was greatest in samples with a low pH. Further, experiments in which an environmental strain of E. coli was dosed into samples of MIW diluted with saline at different concentrations confirmed that the culturability of E. coli significantly decreased with increasing MIW concentration, while the total number of intact cells, determined via "live/dead” staining and microscopy, remained high. This finding suggests that culture and enzyme methods may underestimate viable E. coli levels in AMD-impacted waters.

Biosolids can provide a nutrient rich soil amendment, particularly for poor soils and semi-arid or drought-prone areas. However, there are concerns that sludge and biosolids could be a source of propagation and exposure to AMR determinants such as antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB), and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). To inform risk assessment efforts, a systematic literature review was performed to build a comprehensive spreadsheet database of ARB and ARG concentrations in biosolids (and some sludges specified as intended for land application), along with 69 other quantitative and qualitative meta-data fields from 68 published studies describing sampling information and processing methods that can be used for modeling purposes. Mean ARG concentrations per gram in positive samples of biosolids ranged from −5.7 log10(gene copies [gc]/g) to 12.92 log10(gc/g) (with these range values reported per dry weight), and aqueous concentrations ranged from 0.9 log10(gc/L) to 14.6 log10(gc/L). Mean ARB concentrations per gram of biosolids ranged from 2.02 log10 (colony forming units [CFU]/g) to 9.00 log10 (CFU/g) (dry weight), and aqueous concentrations ranged from 3.23 log10 (CFU/L) to 12.0 log10 (CFU/L). ARG log removal values (LRVs) during sewage sludge stabilization were calculated from a meta-analysis of mean concentrations before and after stabilization from 31 studies, ranging from −2.05 to 5.52 logs. The classes of resistance most relevant for a risk assessment corresponded to sulfonamide (sul1 and sul2), tetracycline (tetZ, tetX, tetA and tetG), beta-lactam (blaTEM), macrolide (ermB and ermF), aminoglycoside (strA and aac(6′)-Ib-cr), and integron-associated (intI1). The resistance classes most relevant for ARB risk assessment included sulfonamides (sulfamethoxazole and sulfamethazine), cephalosporin (cephalothin and cefoxitin), penicillin (ampicillin), and ciprofloxin (ciprofloxacin). Considerations for exposure assessment are discussed to highlight risk assessment needs relating to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) associated with biosolids application. This study aids in prioritization of resources for reducing the spread of AMR within a One Health framework.

Water reuse is an essential strategy for reducing water demand from conventional sources, alleviating water stress, and promoting sustainability, but understanding the effectiveness of associated treatment processes as barriers to the spread of antibiotic resistance is an important consideration to protecting human health. We comprehensively evaluated the reduction of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in two field-operational water reuse systems with distinct treatment trains, one producing water for indirect potable reuse (ozone/biologically-active carbon/granular activated carbon) and the other for non-potable reuse (denitrification-filtration/chlorination) using metagenomic sequencing and culture. Relative abundances of total ARGs/clinically-relevant ARGs and cultured ARB were reduced by several logs during primary and secondary stages of wastewater treatment, but to a lesser extent during the tertiary water reuse treatments. In particular, ozonation tended to enrich multi-drug ARGs. The effect of chlorination was facility-dependent, increasing the relative abundance of ARGs when following biologically-active carbon filters, but generally providing a benefit in reduced bacterial numbers and ecological and human health resistome risk scores. Relative abundances of total ARGs and resistome risk scores were lowest in aquifer samples, although resistant Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were occasionally detected in the monitoring well 3-days downgradient from injection, but not 6-months downgradient. . Resistant E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were occasionally detected in the nonpotable reuse distribution system, along with increased levels of multidrug, sulfonamide, phenicol, and aminoglycoside ARGs. This study illuminates specific vulnerabilities of water reuse systems to persistence, selection, and growth of ARGs and ARB and emphasizes the role of multiple treatment barriers, including aquifers and distribution systems.

It has been debated whether wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) primarily act to attenuate or amplify antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). However, ARGs are highly diverse with respect to their resistance mechanisms, mobilities, and taxonomic hosts and therefore their behavior in WWTPs should not be expected to be universally conserved. We applied metagenomic sequencing to wastewater influent and effluent samples from 12 international WWTPs to classify the behavior of specific ARGs entering and exiting WWTPs. In total, 1079 different ARGs originating from a variety of bacteria were detected. This included ARGs that could be mapped to assembled scaffolds corresponding to nine human pathogens. While the relative abundance (per 16S rRNA gene) of ARGs decreased during treatment at 11 of the 12 WWTPs sampled and absolute abundance (per mL) decreased at all 12 WWTPs, increases in relative abundance were observed for 40% of the ARGs detected at the 12th WWTP. Also, the relative abundance of mobile genetic elements (MGE) increased during treatment, but the fraction of ARGs known to be transmissible between species decreased, thus demonstrating that increased MGE prevalence may not be generally indicative of an increase in ARGs. A distinct conserved resistome was documented in both influent and effluent across samples, suggesting that well-functioning WWTPs generally attenuate influent antibiotic resistance loads. This work helps inform strategies for wastewater surveillance of antibiotic resistance, highlighting the utility of tracking ARGs as indicators of treatment performance and relative risk reduction.

As water reuse applications expand, there is a need for more comprehensive means to assess water quality. Microbiome analysis could provide the ability to supplement fecal indicators and pathogen profiling toward defining a "healthy" drinking water microbiota while also providing insight into the impact of treatment and distribution. Here, we utilized 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to identify signature features in the composition of microbiota across a wide spectrum of water types (potable conventional, potable reuse, and nonpotable reuse). A clear distinction was found in the composition of microbiota as a function of intended water use (e.g., potable vs nonpotable) across a very broad range of U.S. water systems at both the point of compliance (Betadisper p > 0.01; ANOSIM p < 0.01, r-stat = 0.71) and point of use (Betadisper p > 0.01; ANOSIM p < 0.01, r-stat = 0.41). Core and discriminatory analysis further served in identifying distinct differences between potable and nonpotable water microbiomes. Taxa were identified at both the phylum (Desulfobacterota, Patescibacteria, and Myxococcota) and genus (Aeromonas and NS11.12_marine_group) levels that effectively discriminated between potable and nonpotable waters, with the most discriminatory taxa being core/abundant in nonpotable waters (with few exceptions, such as Ralstonia being abundant in potable conventional waters). The approach and findings open the door to the possibility of microbial community signature profiling as a water quality monitoring approach for assessing efficacy of treatments and suitability of water for intended use/reuse application.

Fecal contamination of surface water from anthropogenic sources that contain antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) poses a potential risk to human health. Therefore, identifying ARG sources is essential for protecting drinking and recreational water. An investigation was undertaken to determine anthropogenic ARG sources in a representative mixed-land-use watershed in the Northeastern United States to examine the relationships between ARGs, microbial source tracking (MST) markers, and in-stream physiochemistry. Monthly water samples were collected from 11 sites throughout one year, including the confluence of key first-order streams representing distinct land-use types. Five anthropogenic indicator ARGs (oqxA, ermB, sul1, mexE, tetO) were monitored to quantify ARG loading and help identify ARG sources. The monitoring efforts revealed that human inputs via sewer, septic failure, or illicit discharge and agriculture were dominant ARG sources. Results also indicated that anthropogenic ARGs were more persistent in the surface water than Escherichia coli or MST markers, suggesting they may integrate into the native microbial community. Understanding the impact of different fecal sources on ARG loading is crucial for developing sustainable and effective watershed management plans to control fecal and ARG contamination and protect drinking and recreational water.

Various spatiotemporal, hydraulic, and water quality parameters can affect the microbial community composition of water within drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs). Although some relationships between various paravmeters and microbial growth are known, the effects of spatial and temporal trends on particle-associated microbial communities in chlorinated DWDSs remain poorly understood. The objectives of this study were to characterize the microbial community composition of both particle-associated bacteria (PAB) and total bacteria (TB) within a full-scale chlorinated DWDS, and assess relationships between microbiavvl community and various spatiotemporal, hydraulic, and water quality parameters. Bulk water samples were collected from the treatment plant, a storage tank, and 12 other sites in a rural chlorinated DWDS at varying distances from the treatment plant on four sampling dates spanning six months. Amplicon sequencing targeting the 16S rRNA gene was performed to characterize the microbial community. Gammaproteobacteria dominated the DWDS, and hydraulic parameters were well-correlated with differences in microbial communities between sites. Results indicate that hydraulic changes may have led to the detachment of biofilms and loose deposits, subsequently affecting the microbial community composition at each site. Spatial variations in microbial community were stronger than temporal variations, differing from similar studies and indicating that the highly varied hydraulic conditions within this system may intensify spatial variations. Genera containing pathogenic species were detected, with Legionella and Pseudomonas detected at every site at least once and Mycobacterium detected at most sites. However, only one sample had quantifiable Pseudomonas aeruginosa through quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and no samples had quantifiable Legionella pneumophila or Mycobacterium avium , indicating a low human health risk. This study establishes spatial variations in PAB associated with varied hydraulic conditions as an important factor driving microbial community within a chlorinated DWDS.

Legionella pneumophila was quantified during the COVID-19 pandemic in 26 buildings in three countries to identify factors that influenced positivity.

Antibiotic resistance is one of the greatest threats to global human and animal health of our time. Municipal wastewater has been identified as a hotspot of antibiotic resistance contamination to water bodies. However, there are numerous potential antibiotic resistant pathogens and their associated antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), making it difficult to implement routine monitoring that addresses the breadth of the problem. The objective of this study was to identify candidate indicator ARGs for monitoring antibiotic resistance in wastewater and receiving water bodies. We developed a framework to identify indicator ARGs that incorporated clinical relevance, abundance in wastewater, geographic ubiquity, environmental relevance, ARG mobility, associations with mobile genetic elements, and the availability of quantitative analytical methods. To identify indicator ARGs, published metagenomic sequencing data from 191 wastewater samples originating from 64 countries across the world were obtained from online public repositories. Through ARG annotation and network analysis, this framework revealed 56 candidate indicator ARGs distributed across four modules of strongly correlated ARGs, with one ARG from each module (oqxA, ermB, sul1, and mexE) proposed as a minimally redundant monitoring target. The results of this study provide the basis for antibiotic resistance surveillance and monitoring framework in wastewater and contaminated waterways.

Journal AWWAVolume 115, Issue 9 p. 68-70 Water Quality Matters Microbes and the Water Industry: What to Expect by 2050 Bina Nayak, Corresponding Author Bina Nayak [email protected] Search for more papers by this authorHunter Adams, Hunter AdamsSearch for more papers by this authorDhritikshama Roy, Dhritikshama RoySearch for more papers by this authorVicente Gomez-Alvarez, Vicente Gomez-AlvarezSearch for more papers by this authorDan Kroll, Dan KrollSearch for more papers by this authorEmily Garner, Emily GarnerSearch for more papers by this author Bina Nayak, Corresponding Author Bina Nayak [email protected] Search for more papers by this authorHunter Adams, Hunter AdamsSearch for more papers by this authorDhritikshama Roy, Dhritikshama RoySearch for more papers by this authorVicente Gomez-Alvarez, Vicente Gomez-AlvarezSearch for more papers by this authorDan Kroll, Dan KrollSearch for more papers by this authorEmily Garner, Emily GarnerSearch for more papers by this author First published: 01 November 2023 https://doi.org/10.1002/awwa.2183Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume115, Issue9November 2023Pages 68-70 RelatedInformation

Escherichia coli has been widely used as a fecal indicator bacterium (FIB) for monitoring water quality in drinking water sources and recreational water. However, fecal contamination sources remain difficult to identify and mitigate, as millions of cases of infectious diseases are reported yearly due to swimming and bathing in recreational water. The objective of this study was to apply molecular techniques for microbial source tracking (MST) to identify sources of fecal contamination in a representative mixed land-use watershed located in the Appalachian Mountains of the United States of America (USA). Monthly samples were collected over one year at 11 sites, including the confluence of key first-order streams in the study watershed representing distinct land-use types and anticipated fecal sources. Results indicated that coupled monitoring of host-specific MST markers with the FIB E. coli effectively identified sources and quantified fecal contamination in the study watershed. Human-associated MST markers were abundant primarily at developed sites, suggesting septic or sewer failure is a key source of fecal input to the watershed. Across the dataset, samples positive for E. coli and human MST markers were associated with a higher pH than those samples from which each target was not detected, thereby suggesting that acid mine drainage in the watershed likely contributed to inactivation or loss of culturability in E. coli. In addition, this research provides the first evidence that the BacCan-UCD marker is present in fox feces and can influence MST results in areas where substantial wildlife activity is present. Identifying the sources of fecal contamination and better understanding the impact of in-stream physiochemistry throughout this study will help to develop sustainable and effective watershed management plans to control fecal contamination to protect drinking water sources and recreational water.

Wastewater-based surveillance (WBS) for disease monitoring is highly promising but requires consistent methodologies that incorporate predetermined objectives, targets, and metrics. Herein, we describe a comprehensive metagenomics-based approach for global surveillance of antibiotic resistance in sewage that enables assessment of 1) which antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are shared across regions/communities; 2) which ARGs are discriminatory; and 3) factors associated with overall trends in ARGs, such as antibiotic concentrations. Across an internationally sourced transect of sewage samples collected using a centralized, standardized protocol, ARG relative abundances (16S rRNA gene-normalized) were highest in Hong Kong and India and lowest in Sweden and Switzerland, reflecting national policy, measured antibiotic concentrations, and metal resistance genes. Asian versus European/US resistomes were distinct, with macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin, phenicol, quinolone, and tetracycline versus multidrug resistance ARGs being discriminatory, respectively. Regional trends in measured antibiotic concentrations differed from trends expected from public sales data. This could reflect unaccounted uses, captured only by the WBS approach. If properly benchmarked, antibiotic WBS might complement public sales and consumption statistics in the future. The WBS approach defined herein demonstrates multisite comparability and sensitivity to local/regional factors.

In recent years, drinking water-associated pathogens that can cause infections in immunocompromised or otherwise susceptible individuals (henceforth referred to as DWPI), sometimes referred to as opportunistic pathogens or opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens, have received considerable attention. DWPI research has largely been conducted by experts focusing on specific microorganisms or within silos of expertise. The resulting mitigation approaches optimized for a single microorganism may have unintended consequences and trade-offs for other DWPI or other interests (e.g., energy costs and conservation). For example, the ecological and epidemiological issues characteristic of Legionella pneumophila diverge from those relevant for Mycobacterium avium and other nontuberculous mycobacteria. Recent advances in understanding DWPI as part of a complex microbial ecosystem inhabiting drinking water systems continues to reveal additional challenges: namely, how can all microorganisms of concern be managed simultaneously? In order to protect public health, we must take a more holistic approach in all aspects of the field, including basic research, monitoring methods, risk-based mitigation techniques, and policy. A holistic approach will (i) target multiple microorganisms simultaneously, (ii) involve experts across several disciplines, and (iii) communicate results across disciplines and more broadly, proactively addressing source water-to-customer system management.

Drinking water distribution systems are critical infrastructure that protect public health by ensuring safe water is transported from centralized treatment facilities to consumers. While growth of bacteria, such as opportunistic pathogens, in distribution system infrastructure is well established as a detriment to water quality, little is known about the role of sediment in conveying bacteria via biofilms throughout these systems. The objective of this study was to quantify the abundance of particle-associated bacteria in a rural drinking water distribution system with a chlorine disinfectant residual. The role of hydraulic and physicochemical factors in influencing the spatiotemporal loading of particle-associated bacteria in the system was also examined. The concentration of particle-associated bacteria averaged 1.28 log 10 gene copies per mL, while total bacteria averaged 2.16 log 10 gene copies per mL, demonstrating that biofilms formed on the surface of sediment represent a substantial portion of overall loading in the studied distribution system. Total suspended solids concentrations were correlated with particle-associated bacteria, but not total bacteria. Pipe diameter was found to be an important factor associated with the abundance of both total and particle-associated bacteria, as well as total chlorine concentration. Velocity, Reynold's number and the flow regime were also found to be important, as they were associated with both sediment and total bacteria, but not particle-associated bacteria. The results of this study indicate that particle-associated bacteria and total bacteria concentrations often followed disparate trends, demonstrating that their abundance is differentially influenced by a complex combination of physicochemical and hydraulic factors. These findings help to establish sediment as an important conduit for microbial loading in a chlorinated drinking water distribution system.