The heart is widely acknowledged as the unique driver of blood circulation. Recently, we discovered a flow-driving mechanism that can operate without imposed pressure, using infrared (IR) energy to propel flow. We considered the possibility that, by exploiting this mechanism, blood vessels, themselves, could propel flow. We verified the existence of this driving mechanism by using a three-day-old chick-embryo model. When the heart was stopped, blood continued to flow for approximately 50 minutes, albeit at a lower velocity. When IR was introduced, the postmortem flow increased from ~41.1 ± 25.6 μm/s to ~153.0 ± 59.5 μm/s (n = 6). When IR energy was diminished under otherwise physiological conditions, blood failed to flow. Hence, this IR-dependent, vessel-based flow-driving mechanism may indeed operate in the circulatory system, complementing the action of the heart.

Solutions with high pH values are sometimes thought to contain net negative charge because of an excess of OH- groups, while solutions with low pH values are thought opposite. To follow up on these speculations, we used a simple electrochemical cell to study three types of solution: electrolyzed waters with differing pH values; acids and bases with different pH values; and various salt solutions. When electrolyzed waters of various pH values were tested against water of pH 7, we found that acidic waters were indeed positively charged, while basic waters were negatively charged. We found much the same when standard acids and bases were compared to reference solutions: acidic solutions were positively charged while basic solutions were negatively charged. Various salts, including NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, and K2SO4, were also tested against DI water (containing trace amounts of NaCl to lend conductivity). Surprisingly, all salts were found to be negatively charged, more so as their concentrations increased. This collection of results supports the hypothesis that at least some aqueous solutions may contain net charge.

Hydrophilic materials immersed in aqueous solutions show near-surface zones that exclude suspended colloids and dissolved molecules. These exclusion zones (EZs) can extend for tens to hundreds of micrometers from hydrophilic surfaces and show physicochemical properties that differ from bulk water. Here we report that exposure of standard aqueous microsphere suspensions to static magnetic fields creates similar microsphere-free zones adjacent to magnetic poles. The EZs build next to both north and south poles; and they build whether the microspheres are of polystyrene or carboxylate composition. EZ formation is accompanied by ordered motions of microspheres, creating dense zones some distance from the magnetic poles and leaving microsphere-free zones adjacent to the magnet. EZ size was larger next to the north pole than the south pole. The difference was statistically significant when polystyrene microspheres were used, although not when carboxylate microspheres were used. In many ways, including both size and dynamics, these exclusion zones resemble those found earlier next to various hydrophilic surfaces. The ability to create EZs represents a feature of magnets not previously revealed.

Hydrophilic materials such as Nafion can nucleate the buildup of interfacial water, which shows features different from bulk water. We investigated the effect of infrared (IR) light on a negatively charged, interfacial exclusion zone (EZ) and a positively charged proton zone (PZ) formed in the vicinity of Nafion. After irradiation for 5 min by mid-IR light, EZ size increased with an expansion ratio of 1.41. A significant expansion was also found in the size of PZ, equivalent to an increment of about 1.39 x 10(16) molecules of hydronium ions. Thus, IR radiation not only builds EZ, but at the same time drives release of protons from the growing EZ to bulk water. Near-IR illumination also showed expansion of EZ and PZ water. These results imply that incident IR light not only promotes the build-up of interfacial water at the hydrophilic surface, but also provides a driving force for charge separation.

Low frequency electric fields were exposed to various water samples using platinum electrodes mounted near the water surface. Responses were monitored using a spectro-radiometer and a contact-angle goniometer. Treatment of DI (deionized), EZ (Exclusion Zone), and bulk water with certain electromagnetic frequencies resulted in a drop of radiance persisting for at least half an hour. Compared to DI water, however, samples of EZ and bulk water showed lesser radiance drop. Contact-angle goniometric results confirmed that when treated with alternating electric fields (E = 600 ± 150 V/m, f = 7.8 and 1000 Hz), droplets of EZ and bulk water acquired different charges. The applied electric field interacted with EZ water only when electrodes were installed above the chamber, but not beneath. Further, when DI water interacted with an electric field applied from above (E = 600 ± 150 V/m, f = 75 Hz), its radiance profile became similar to that of EZ water. Putting these last two findings together, one can say that application of an electric field on DI water from above (E = 600 ± 150 V/m, f = 7.8 to 75 Hz) may induce a molecular ordering in DI water similar to that of EZ water.

Propolis is a natural product originating from life activity of honeybees. It exhibits wide range of biological properties applicable in medicine, the food industry, and cosmetics. Chemically, propolis is a complex and variable mixture with more than 300 identified biologically active components. Propolis's many health-promoting effects are attributed to different biochemical mechanisms, mediated by often-concerted actions of some of its many constituents. Propolis is considered safe and biocompatible. Yet due to its intrinsic complexity, standardization of propolis preparations for medical use as well as prediction of e.g. pathogen-specific interactions becomes a non-trivial task. In this work we demonstrate a new physical mechanism of propolis action, largely independent of specific nuances of propolis chemistry, which may underlie some of its biological actions. We show that propolis-bearing surfaces generate an extensive exclusion zone (EZ) water layer. EZ is an interfacial region of water capable of excluding solutes ranging from ions to microorganisms. Propolis-generated EZ may constitute an effective barrier, physically disabling the approach of various pathogens to the propolis-functionalized surfaces. We suggest possible implications of this new mechanism for propolis-based prevention of respiratory infections.

The ionic compositions of the intra- and extracellular environments are distinct from one another, with K+ being the main cation in the cytosol and Na+ being the most abundant cation outside of the cell. Specific ions can permeate into and out of the cell at different rates, bringing about uneven distribution of charges and development of negative electric potential inside the cell. Each healthy cell must maintain a specific ion concentration gradient and voltage. To account for these functions, various ionic pumps and channels located within the cell membrane have been invoked. In this work, we use a porous alginate hydrogel as a model gelatinous network representing the plant cell wall or cytoskeleton of the animal cell. We show that the gel barrier is able to maintain a stable separation of ionic solutions of different ionic strengths and chemical compositions without any pumping activity. For the Na+/K+ concentration gradient sustained across the barrier, a negative electric potential develops within the K+-rich side. The situation is reminiscent of that in the cell. Furthermore, also the advective flow of water molecules across the gel barrier is restricted, despite the gel's large pores and the osmotic or hydrostatic pressure gradients across it. This feature has important implications for osmoregulation. We propose a mechanism in which charge separation and electric fields developing across the permselective (gel) membrane prevent ion and bulk fluid flows ordinarily driven by chemical and pressure gradients.

A fourth phase of water, labeled exclusion-zone or "EZ," extends from hydrophilic surfaces. Salient features include exclusion of colloidal and molecular solutes, and characteristic light absorbance at 270 nm. In cell systems, EZ water interfaces with membranes, macromolecules, and organelles, and its buildup appears to be vital for function. For years thought to build health, fats have gained a negative reputation over the last few decades. While their exact role in health remains unclear, now they have become more accepted. We tested several fats for their capacity to generate EZ water. Large EZs formed next to ghee, coconut oil, lard, organic clarified butter, and 'Brain Octane (R)' oil. Cold ghee surfaces produced especially large EZs. Thus, EZ growth, confirmed by microsphere exclusion and UV-VIS absorbance spectroscopy of samples flanking the fat, may be an important factor in cellular hydration and might well underlie the health-promoting function of fats.

Hydration plays a particularly important role in health maintenance and general well-being. A wide assortment of drinking waters are currently available on the market. However, their ability to hydrate may vary. For studying hydration, a useful organism may be the cysts of brine shrimp. Those cysts may remain dehydrated and functionless for years, but regain function once hydrated. In this study, we first determined the optimal factors for assessing hydration in the brine-shrimp model, including aeration method and flow rate, salinity, and temperature. Various kinds of water, including tap water, bottled water, and water containing health-promoting agents, were tested by using this new method to evaluate their ability to hydrate. Tap water showed weak hydration, while some bottled waters (e.g., Kirkland Signature Purified Water) hydrated more effectively. Mineral water, such as Fiji water, was found to be a desirable option to maintain adequate and lasting hydration. ![Figure][1]</img> [1]: pending:yes

While water evaporation and condensation are of fundamental importance to our environment, many features remain under investigation. In this study, we explored the water-condensation circle (WCC) formed on the inner surface of Petri dish lids covering containers of water. We found that they progressively diminished in diameter. Surprisingly, the diminution rate could be affected by objects placed beneath the bottom of the container. For systems that were not in thermal equilibrium with the environment (i.e., warm water in the Petri-dish container), thermal conductivity of the materials played the dominant role. Heat transfer from the water in the container to the material beneath affected the temperature of the water and thus the water evaporation, which changed the humidity in the Petri dish and hence the WCC diminution rate. Yet, when no temperature differences existed between the system and the environment, radiant energy emitted by the materials placed beneath the container was a determining factor. This is unexpected. Common materials placed outside chambers of water are not expected to impact evaporation rates.

One of the characteristics of aqueous interfaces is their negative charge, whose origin is still a subject of scientific debate. In this work, we provide spectroscopic evidence that bicarbonate anions, from dissolution of atmospheric CO2, can be a source of negative charge at the air-water and/or solid-water interface. Also, interfacial charge separation, with a negatively charged droplet rim and positive charges gathering more toward the interior, makes water droplets receptive systems. We found that these droplets move in a controlled fashion because of electrostatic forces acting between droplets and a solid support possessing a static electric charge. A trigger used to induce droplets' motion is IR emitted by different common objects. We interpret IR action as resulting from its ability to enhance the negative charge of the interfacial water. Droplets that leave negatively charged residues adsorbed to the solid, therefore acquiring a net positive charge, can defy the force of gravity and jump off the charged surface instead of falling, as observed in our experiments. Insights obtained from infrared emission of water agree with the possibility of excess protons residing in droplets after their contact with the solid. Our results show that (i) aqueous interfaces in contact with CO2 gas from the atmosphere (or possibly from cellular respiration inside of the organisms) acquire a negative surface charge, and (ii) infrared energy, abundant externally from the sun and internally from metabolic heat, can impact this process.

Silk sericin is a globular protein whose resistance against fouling is important for applications in biomaterials and water-purification membranes. Here it is shown how sericin generates a water-exclusion zone that may facilitate antifouling behavior. Negatively charged microspheres were used to mimic the surface charge and hydrophobic domains in bacteria. Immersed in water, regenerated silk sericin formed a 100-µm-sized exclusion zone (for micron-size foulants), along with a proton gradient with a decrease of >2 pH-units. Thus, when in contact with sericin, water molecules near the surface restructure to form a physical exclusionary barrier that might prevent biofouling. The decreased pH turns the aqueous medium unviable for neutrophilic bacteria. Therefore, resistance to biofouling seems explainable, among other factors, on the basis of water-exclusionary phenomena. Furthermore, sericin may play a role in triggering the fibroin assembly process by lowering the pH to the required value.

When droplets of purified water (1–5 μl) were cooled from the bottom, they slowly and continuously supercooled before releasing latent heat as a transient burst of infra-red (IR) radiation. In order to determine the role of this IR emission, a thin rectangular water layer was cooled unilaterally while imaged from above by an infrared (FLIR) camera. The first noticeable event was an IR burst that rapidly (< 0.1 s) moved through a 5-mm-long path of water. Final solidification of the water layer was recognized by an increase in volume, as the meniscus at the air interface changed from concave to convex. The propagation of the IR burst through the water layer preceded the first visible onset of volume increase and solidification by more than one second. The transient and early appearance of the IR burst belongs to what is called the first stage of freezing. This stage has been linked to the formation of so-called spongy ice. Both IR burst and pinnately shaped spongy ice appear at the same time and share a short transient existence. It is only this early type of ice that is associated with the IR burst. By contrast, the later-occurring solid ice formation parallels a diminishing IR emission.

It is now well-confirmed that hydrophilic surfaces including those within the cell generate structural changes in water. This interfacial water is ordered and acquires features different from the bulk. Amongst those features is the exclusion of colloidal and molecular solutes from extensive regions next to the hydrophilic surface, thereby earning it the label of “exclusion zone” (EZ) water. The transition of ordered EZ water to bulk serves as an important trigger of many cellular physiological functions, and in turn cellular health. We tested physiological doses of half a dozen agents generally identified to restore or build health on the extent to which they build EZs. All agents known to enhance biological function resulted in EZ expansion. On the other hand, the weed killer, glyphosate, considerably diminished EZ size. While the expansion effect of the health-promoting agents was observed over a wide range of concentrations, excessive doses ultimately reduced EZ size. We hypothesize that EZ buildup may be a mechanistic feature underlying many health-promoting agents, while agents that impair health may act by diminishing the amount of EZ water.

Flow of electrical current through water is expected to increase water temperature. We passed low-frequency alternating electric current through distilled, deionized water using platinum electrodes and found, instead, a diminution of temperature. The diminution was observed using both an infrared camera and a spectroradiometer, the latter allowing us to obtain spectral information. The diminished temperature persisted for at least half an hour following cessation of the current flow. Diminished radiant energy implies reduced charge displacements, which in turn implies increased structural order. Hence, the passage of charge into water appears to increase the water structure.

Earlier studies have reported the formation of an exclusion zone devoid of microspheres at the interface of water with a hydrophilic surface such as Nafion® or the hydrophilic ceramic powder. We now report the formation of a ‘three-dimensional cell-like structured exclusion zone’ in water prepared by two different methods. In the first, the hydrophilic powder was agitated with deionized water and allowed to rest (contact method). Subsequently, the ‘powder-supernatant water’ was collected and termed ‘contact water’. In the second method, deionized water in a closed container was kept in the close vicinity of the hydrophilic powder for an extended time-period and it was termed ‘non-contact water’. The two kinds of waters were tested by standard methods for various physical properties. In addition, we carried out cryogenic scanning-electron microscopy of frozen samples of the two kinds of water. The powder-supernatant water showed a cell-like heterogeneous ice structure with the high-density exclusion-zone water forming the walls of a cell-like structure. A similar cell-like ice structure was formed for water treated with the hydrophilic powder in a non-contact manner; the unit cell size depended on the ‘degree of structure’ in the water. When highly structured, the unit cell size was smaller with a concurrently enhanced dielectric constant and reduced redox potential. It was found that the electrical properties are more sensitive to the change in water structure compared to other physical properties such as surface tension, density, and specific heat. Based on our findings of an electric potential difference between the heterogeneous structured water and the ordinary water, we propose a new model to explain the relationship between heterogeneous, structured water and its electrical properties.

Brownian particles suspended in water or other polar liquids are pushed out of the region next to hydrophilic polymers, leaving a microsphere-free region known as the “exclusion zone” (EZ). This study aimed to test the hypothesis that the dilution of ethanol in water may influence EZ formation. EZs were created in aqueous media using Nafion tubes as EZ-nucleating surfaces. To define the outer edge of the EZ, carboxylate microspheres, 1 µm diameter, were used. Dynamic movement of microspheres away from Nafion surface was registered in mixtures of ethanol and water, the ethanol concentration varying from 0 to 95%. We found that mixtures with the highest concentrations of ethanol generally produced the smallest EZs and the slowest EZ buildup. However, an unexpected result was the presence of an extremum corresponding to ~10% ethanol. At this concentration, the EZ is larger than in either pure water or almost pure ethanol.

Hydrogels contain ample amounts of water, with the water-to-solid ratio sometimes reaching tens of thousands of times. How can so much water remain securely lodged within the gel? New findings imply a simple mechanism. Next to hydrophilic surfaces, water transitions into an extensive gel-like phase in which molecules become ordered. This "fourth phase" of water sticks securely to the solid gel matrix, ensuring that the water does not leak out.

The surface of ice plays a significant role in melting. To better understand the role of the surface, we studied the melting of ice using infrared imaging and pH-sensitive dyes. Ice was allowed to melt in baths of water of varying depths. When the ice melted in a high level of room-temperature water, equal to the height of the ice, the conventional melting pattern appeared. When the ice melted in a chamber with a lower water level, the melting pattern was unexpected. Seconds after the ice was placed in the water, localized regions of low-temperature water appeared around the perimeter of the ice. These regions grew radially outward and seemed to originate as streams coming from inside the ice. Those streams contained high concentrations of protons, as indicated by the color change of a pH-sensitive dye initially placed in the water surrounding the ice. This observation, together with the temperature distribution and ice-shape changes during melting implied that the streams may be propelled by protons from inside the ice. In contrast to conventional melting, which progresses from the outer surface inward, the stream-melting pattern implies a melting process originating inside the ice.