Disentangling the impact of Late Quaternary climate change from human activities can have crucial implications on the conservation of endangered species. We investigated the population genetics and demography of the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus), one of the world's most endangered marine mammals, through an unprecedented dataset encompassing historical (extinct) and extant populations from the eastern North Atlantic to the entire Mediterranean Basin. We show that Cabo Blanco (Western Sahara/Mauritania), Madeira, Western Mediterranean (historical range) and Eastern Mediterranean regions segregate into four populations. This structure is probably the consequence of recent drift, combined with long-term isolation by distance (R-2 = 0.7), resulting from prevailing short-distance (less than 500 km) and infrequent long-distance dispersal (less than 1500 km). All populations (Madeira especially), show high levels of inbreeding and low levels of genetic diversity, seemingly declining since historical time, but surprisingly not being impacted by the 1997 massive die-off in Cabo Blanco. Approximate Bayesian Computation analyses support scenarios combining local extinctions and a major effective population size decline in all populations during Antiquity. Our results suggest that the early densification of human populations around the Mediterranean Basin coupled with the development of seafaring techniques were the main drivers of the decline of Mediterranean monk seals.

Every 6 years, the European Commission requires Member States to report on their progress in implementing the Habitats Directive through a process involving the assessment of the conservation status (CS) of the Directive’s species and habitats. The results of the marine species assessment undertaken by Italy in the fourth report (2013–2018) are presented and discussed. Twenty-seven species of vertebrates (14 mammals and 5 sea turtles), invertebrates (1 echinoderm, 1 crustacean decapod, 3 molluscs and 1 cnidarian) and algae (2 rhodophytes) were examined through the analysis of different parameters. The distribution pattern of the investigated species was very heterogeneous, ranging from wide, in highly mobile and migratory species (e.g. Stenella coeruleoalba and Caretta caretta), to narrow or extremely narrow in some rare species (e.g. Patella ferruginea and Monachus monachus). Data from aerial surveys provided reliable estimates of population size for one sea turtle and three cetacean species. The absence of adequate data time series hampered the evaluation of temporal trends of the species’ evaluation parameters. Human-induced pressures were recognised as the most relevant drivers influencing the CS of all the species. The amount of marine species currently considered in favourable CS increased from 12.5 to 38.9% compared to the 2007–2012 reporting cycle. However, almost 40% of species are still classified as unknown and three species (M. monachus, Pinna nobilis and Scyllarides latus) are considered in an unfavourable (inadequate or bad) CS, stressing the need of implementing long-term monitoring programs coordinated at regional or sub-regional scales to inform management and conservation measures.

The study aims to investigate the relationship between the presence of rhodolith beds and the effect on the shelf bottom boundary layer due to the action of surface wind waves. The study area is situated off-shore and north-west of Elba Island in the Western Mediterranean Sea, an area known to be characterized by rhodolith beds. A binomial logistic regression model is used in order to analyse the relationship between wind-wave energy at sea bottom, bathymetry and rhodolith bed occurrence. The results indicate a positive correlation between rhodolith bed occurrence and wave energy, while the relation with bathymetry is weaker in all the trials. The wave energy confidence interval associated to the rhodolith bed probability is also estimated, thereby informing on wind wave energy values required for the modelling of this particular benthic habitat in off-shore shelf areas.

Mediterranean monk seals (MMS) are among the most endangered marine mammals on Earth. We screened mitochondrial variability (control region [CR1] and mitogenomes) of the species through a 180-yr timeframe and extended by 20% (n = 205) the number of samples from a previous investigation, including historical specimens from 1833 to 1975. Although we detected two new, rare CR1 haplotypes, genetic diversity remained extremely low. Fully resolved haplotype median network and rarefaction analysis both suggested low probability for further unscreened haplotypes. There was no clear phylogeographic structure across the 12 marine subdivisions covered by the species' range. Haplotypes previously considered diagnostic of the extant North Atlantic and eastern Mediterranean populations had their distributions extended into the western Mediterranean and the North Atlantic, respectively, by both historical and recent samples. Our study suggests that MMS have been genetically depauperate since at least the mid-19th century, and that the massive 1997 die-off in Western Sahara (North Atlantic) could have caused local haplotype extinctions. Our results support the hypothesis of past metapopulation dynamics across the species range, where the current segregation into geographically distant and genetically depauperate breeding populations (i.e., North Atlantic and eastern Mediterranean Sea) derives from the combined effects of historical extinctions, genetic drift on small breeding groups, and persistently low levels of genetic diversity.

The Natura 2000 (N2k) network is an important site-based protection tool for the protection of biodiversity in Europe. However, for highly mobile and adaptable marine species, such a tool might not be the most effective way to achieve conservation objectives, unless this includes a broader consideration of the direct threats to these species throughout their range. Considering that the N2k network requires that a "significant proportion" of 60% of the population be under protection, this creates a challenge for the conservation of these wide-ranging species. This paper reviews the efficacy of the N2k network as it is presently implemented within the Adriatic Sea for the conservation of two highly mobile marine species-the common bottlenose dolphin and the loggerhead turtle. In particular, it considers the appropriateness of the current Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) in the region and the relevance of the existing marine N2k network for the conservation of these species. It provides new insights on the approach used to evaluate SCI designations highlighting important weaknesses in the system, including threat identification after SCI designation, and the relevance of SCI size in relation to management commitments. Data from two basin-wide aerial surveys were used to define areas of relative high density of these species, in comparison to other areas in the basin. Given the ambitious 60% conservation target of the N2k network, analysis shows that site-based protection tools are unlikely to be sufficient to protect a "significant proportion" of either species, unless very large areas are designated as SCIs. However, given that the main threats known to affect these species in this region (i.e., fishery bycatch and seismic surveys) are present throughout the basin, these large SCIs would still have limited conservation success without implementing other wide-scale mitigation measures. For these two species, the Member States and the European Union authorities should give higher priority to the implementation of another pillar of the Habitats Directive, mitigating accidental catches in fishing gear and other human-induced mortalities. This should take into consideration the full effects of these mortalities on the populations of these two species through regular transboundary monitoring programs.

We have analyzed the development of "Broad-Scale Seabed Habitat Maps" (BSHM) and their potential use in a European context with regard to the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) implementation, MPA designation and network assessment as well as other applications of BSHMs.The analyses are anchored in BSHMs developed by a series of interlinked EU projects (e.g.UKSeaMap, BALANCE, MESH, Mesh Atlantic, EUSeaMap 2012, and EUSeaMap 2016) and all maps are based on environmental data.Some EU Member States have used BSHMs as part of their MSFD Initial Assessments published in 2012.However, we conclude that BSHMs are a prerequisite for another key MSFD activity, i.e. mapping of potentially cumulative effects of multiple human stressors.Further, BSHMs seem to play a growing role with regard to evidence-based assessments of MPAs.With the upcoming second round of MSFD Initial Assessments due in 2018, including assessment of potentially cumulative pressures, there seems to be an increasing need for more BSHMs nationally, regionally and on a European scale.

The EUNIS (European Union Nature Information System) habitat classification system aims to provide a common European reference set of habitat types within a hierarchical classification, and to cover all terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats of Europe. The classification facilitates reporting of habitat data in a comparable manner, for use in nature conservation (e.g. inventories, monitoring and assessments), habitat mapping and environmental management. For the marine environment the importance of a univocal habitat classification system is confirmed by the fact that many European initiatives, aimed at marine mapping, assessment and reporting, are increasingly using EUNIS habitat categories and respective codes. For this reason substantial efforts have been made to include information on marine benthic habitats from different regions, aiming to provide a comprehensive geographical coverage of European seas. However, there still remain many concerns on its applicability as only a small fraction of Europe's seas are fully mapped and increasing knowledge and application raise further issues to be resolved. This paper presents an overview of the main discussion and conclusions of a workshop, organised by the MeshAtlantic project, focusing upon the experience in using the EUNIS habitats classification across different countries and seas, together with case studies. The aims of the meeting were to: (i) bring together scientists with experience in the use of the EUNIS marine classification and representatives from the European Environment Agency (EEA); (ii) agree on enhancements to EUNIS that ensure an improved representation of the European marine habitats; and (iii) establish practices that make marine habitat maps produced by scientists more consistent with the needs of managers and decision-makers. During the workshop challenges for the future development of EUNIS were identified, which have been classified into five categories: (1) structure and hierarchy; (2) biology; (3) terminology; (4) mapping; and (5) future development. The workshop ended with a declaration from the attendees, with recommendations to the EEA and European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity, to take into account the outputs of the workshop, which identify weaknesses in the current classification and include proposals for its modification, and to devise a process to further develop the marine component of the EUNIS habitat classification.

Knowledge on Mediterranean monk seal distribution throughout the central-eastern Mediterranean Moroccan coasts is not abundant and has not been consistently assessed throughout time. Results of a questionnaire survey directed at 205 artisanal fishers operating out of 18 landing sites of central-eastern Morocco, and extending over 210 km of coast, are hereby reported. The information on reported monk seal sightings amounts to 141 observations reported for the period 1971 to 2005, with the highest number of reported sightings for the year 2004 amounting to 32. More than 58% of the study area is characterized by rocky cliffs of alternating height, and monk seal sighting frequency was mostly reported for four subareas. However, only two of these, Cap Trois Fourches and Ras Kebdana, seem to be utilised in recent times and seem to be areas where immediate conservation actions should be enacted in order to safeguard remaining seal nuclei. The remoteness of these sites and the presence of the nearby nature reserve in the Chafarinas Islands may contribute to the protection of a nucleus of monk seals, which is likely to benefit from the proximity to the nearby Algerian border where monk seals could survive. Immediate conservation actions should be enacted in the identified subareas, and a regional strategy, including the nearby Algerian areas as well as the western Moroccan area of the Al Hoceima National Park, should be implemented so as to avoid further population fragmentation in this area of the western Mediterranean.

Although for over two decades resident populations of Mediterranean monk seals (Monachus monachus) have disappeared from Italian locations, sightings of seals have occasionally been reported. The present paper illustrates the methodology used to validate monk seal sightings recorded by third-party observers from 1998 to 2010 and the main results of the validation procedure. The collected monk seal sighting information amounts to 81 observations of which 48 are validated observations corresponding to 35 distinctive sighting events. Over the course of the entire 12-y period, sightings were reported in a somewhat repetitive manner, mostly in the lesser western islands of Sicily and northern Sardinia. The repeated observations over the years in the said areas would suggest that these individuals are not observed incidentally and that there may be a regular use of selected stretches of coast over time. More recently (2009-2010), sightings have also been recorded in the proximity of selected locations of the central-western and northwestern Italian coasts, two of which are characterised by islands. Information on the size class category of the sighted animals, as inferred from the estimated length, suggests that most observed individuals are likely to be juvenile animals, while a smaller amount of seals are likely to be sub-adult and adult-sized individuals. Information from the collected reports indicates that monk seal sightings in Italy, although not frequent, occur steadily and on a repeated basis. Further studies are needed to determine the number of individual monk seals present and their spatial and temporal usage of the coastal areas where they are observed, while awareness activities should be conducted to raise attention to behavioural and reporting procedures to be followed in case of sightings to the benefit of a more thorough monitoring of sightings in the country.

This study analyzes morphometrically 17 skulls of the Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus housed in different Italian Museums and collections. We considered several morphometric variables (31 linear, 1 volumetric and 1 surface area measurements). In addition, we identified, measured and compared two nonmorphometric variables, namely, the bone densities of selected areas obtained using a dual‐energy X‐ray absorptiometry (DXA) device. The high correlation coefficient of all variables indicated continuous growth with the onset of age. The ranking of the hierarchical cluster analysis identified the presence of three main groups containing individuals of similar sizes: lactating pups and yearlings; subadult individuals and adult females; and adult males. Smaller groups were identified within these clusters, and their respective allocations into two subgroups were argued on the basis of skull development and other factors. The discriminant analysis of the three main groups indicated a discriminant diagnostic key, based on condilobasilar length (CBlr‐L); maximum mandibular branch height (MB‐H); and surface area of the bulla tympanica. The proposed diagnostic key is useful to classify monk seal skulls of unidentified age and sex. The data reported here suggest that in this species certain adult skull growth features (enhanced tympanic bullae surface area extension, occipital bone density) are sexually dimorphic and possibly related to specific anatomical functions. These functions may include an enhanced auditory capacity; an increased development of the cranial musculature capable of supporting a large skull and guaranteeing the mandibular strength necessary for mastication; and male to male social interactions. Anat Rec, 292:544–556, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

This work aimed at applying geometric morphometric analysis techniques to the skull of the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus, Hermann, 1779). Inferential analyses were performed using a non-parameteric permutation framework based on a series of skulls of different age classes belonging to individuals of both sexes. Our goal was to establish whether a statistical approach based on osteometric measurements and surface analysis of photographs of the left lateral plane of the skull may lead to a different and scientifically sound method of age and sex classification in this critically endangered marine mammal. Our data indicate that non-parametric combination methodology enables the researcher to give local assessment using a combination with domains. Developing geometric morphometric techniques in a non-parametric permutation framework could be useful in solving high dimensional and small sample size problems as well as classification problems, including zoological classification of specimens within a specific population. The Mediterranean monk seal is believed to be the world's rarest pinniped and one of the most endangered mammals of the world, with fewer than 600 individuals currently surviving. The use of shape analysis would allow new insights into the biological characteristics of the monk seal by simply extracting potentially new information on age and size from museal specimens.

The limpet Patella ferruginea is an endemic Mediterranean species threatened by extinction. Therefore, in a conservation approach, it is of great importance to identify and quantify the structure of its remaining populations. The study, conducted in September 2002 within the MedMPA project, revealed the presence of a large population of Patella ferruginea within the National Park of Al Hoceima and in particular on the Cala Iris Islet. In this site, the population seems to be well-established with a specimen density of 0.23 ind./m and a maximum length of 90 mm. The relevance of the study area for P. ferruginea points out the need of further specific research activities to draw a management and monitoring plan to adequately protect this endangered species in the National Park of Al Hoceima. Riassunto Patella ferruginea e una specie endemica del Mediterraneo, a rischio di estinzione. In un’ottica conservazionistica, e dunque importante identificare e quantificare le popolazioni esistenti. Le attivita di rilevamento condotte nel mese di settembre del 2002 nell’ambito del progetto MedMPA, hanno consentito di registrare la presenza di una considerevole popolazione di P. ferruginea lungo le coste del Parco Nazionale di Al Hoceima ed in particolare sull’isolotto di Cala Iris. In questo sito la popolazione sembra essere ben insediata con una densita di 0.23 ind./m e caratterizzata da individui di lunghezza massima pari a 90 mm. La presenza di P. ferruginea in quest’area evidenzia la necessita di future attivita di ricerca finalizzate alla definizione di un piano di monitoraggio e di gestione al fine di proteggere in modo efficace questa specie nelle acque del Parco Nazionale di Al Hoceima.

Mediterranean monk seal distribution is, at present, mostly limited to the eastern part of the basin. Monk seals inhabiting the Turkish and Greek archipelagos are estimated at 150 to 250 individuals (Reijnders 1998a). There is, on the other hand, a significant information gap on the conservation status of the species along extensive stretches of north African coast in Mediterranean countries such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya (Aguilar 1998). Consideration of these small groups is most important for a correct global conservation strategy of the species in the Mediterranean (Reijnders 1998b). To this end, identification of the distribution of such individuals and scattered groups, as well as conservation measures for their recovery, should be undertaken in an effort to ensure survival of these nuclei.

The paper considers the present legal protection within the EU for seals living in small nuclei. The species concerned fall into two main groups in respect of their current conservation status as determined by the IUCN Animal Red List Criteria. First we discuss small nuclei of seals of species or subspecies which have relatively large total populations and which are considered to have an overall favourable conservation status and be "low risk". These are the grey seal Halichoerus grypus and the harbour seal Phoca vitulina vitulina. Along with these species we also consider the Baltic ringed seal, Phoca hispida botnica, which is classed as "vulnerable". Secondly we discuss nuclei of "endangered" seal species. These are the Saimaa ringed seal Phoca hispida saimensis and the Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus. We conclude that although there are provisions for the protection of small nuclei of seals in the principal international legal instruments (the 1979 Berne Convention and the 1992 Habitats Directive), these provisions are not always being fully implemented in domestic law.

A field mission was carried out in the late spring of 2002 with the purpose of identifying potential "hotspots" for the presence of the Mediterranean monk seal in the Cyrenaica coastal region. The fieldwork was conducted under a Memorandum of Understanding coordinated by UNEP's Regional Activity Center for Special Protected Areas (RAC/SPA) and involving the collaboration between the Environment General Authority (EGA) of Libya and the Istituto Centrale per la Ricerca Applicata al Mare (ICRAM) of Italy. The objectives of the field mission were to: ● collect information on past and recent monk seal sightings in Cyrenaica through a specific interview campaign directed at the fishermen operating out of the Cyrenaican landing sites and ports with a view to identifying "hotspots" characterised by the presence of monk seal individuals ● collect preliminary information on the coastal characteristics and habitat suitability for the species in Cyrenaica so as to identify sectors needing investigation from sea to be carried out in a later phase of work ● collect information on other marine species of secondary interest (with respect to the purpose of the present study) but which are nevertheless important from the point of view of marine biodiversity (i.e. other protected and rare species, invasive species).