Objectives This study examined changes associated with participation in an online emotional intelligence (EI) training program (API-D) and explored how defense mechanisms predict changes in EI and personality traits throughout the intervention. Method A total of 96 athletes (67 women) participated in this study; a training group (n = 50) received the 8-week, two-phase API-D online program, while a control group (n = 46) did not. All athletes completed self-report measures of defense mechanisms, trait EI, and personality traits at three measurement points: before the intervention, after phase one (knowledge development phase), and after phase two (abilities development phase). Results For the training group, repeated measures ANOVAs showed an increase in adaptive defense mechanisms (ADM) and a decrease in maladaptive defense mechanisms (MDM). Multilevel Growth Curve Analysis revealed a linear increase in the global score of trait EI and a linear decrease in neuroticism throughout the intervention. Findings also indicated that defense mechanisms influenced the trajectories of trait EI and personality traits. Conclusion Participation in the API-D program was associated with increases in trait EI, reductions in neuroticism, and more adaptive defensive functioning across the intervention. ADM were associated with higher trait EI, suggesting that they foster psychological readiness for EI learning. In contrast, MDM predicted lower EI and showed slower improvement over time, underlining their potential role as barriers to EI development during training. Overall, these findings highlight the role that defense mechanisms as psychological processes may play, as they can either facilitate or hinder athletes’ EI development.

The goals of this study were: (a) to explore the most effective approach to represent the factor structure of SEQ scores by employing advanced methodological techniques recently introduced in the scientific literature, including bi-factor, exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM) and bi-factor ESEM; and (b) to examine the temporal invariance of SEQ scores using the best-fitting model previously identified. 460 athletes completed the SEQ across three measurement times to assess their emotional states experienced during competitions. Data were analyzed with a series of confirmatory factorial analysis, bi-factor, ESEM and bi-factor-ESEM. Considering the fit indices and standardized factor loadings across the three measurement points, the results indicated that ESEM could be regarded as the most suitable model for describing the factorial structure of SEQ scores. Furthermore, the findings provided evidence for the partial factor mean longitudinal invariance of SEQ. Finally, we hope these results will encourage research on longitudinal evolution of emotions across a season of sports competitions or over several seasons.

Objectives: Based on emotional intelligence (EI) theory and cognitive motivational relational theory of emotions, this study aimed to explore longitudinal relationships between the core constructs of the emotional process (appraisals, coping and emotions) and perceived performances during competition and to examine the moderating role of EI on these relationships. Methods: A total of 453 athletes (Mage= 20.6; 117 females and 336 males) from different sports and different competitive levels participated in the study. Appraisals, coping, emotions, and perceived performances were assessed after five competitions across the season and EI was assessed at the beginning of the competitive season. Hierarchical linear modelling analyses were conducted to: (a) Evaluate the mediational role of coping strategies on the appraisals - emotions relationships and on the appraisals - perceived performances relationships; (b) explore the mediational role of emotions on the appraisals - perceived performances relationships; and (c) test the moderating role of EI on these relationships. Results: The results showed that: (a) coping played a mediational role on the appraisals-emotions relationships; (b) emotions mediated the appraisals-perceived performances relationships; and (c) EI moderated the aforementioned relationships between the core constructs of emotional process and perceived performances. Conclusions: As a whole, this study furthered knowledge about the ways the core emotional constructs are interrelated and impact perceived performances within competitive settings. Through coping strategies and cognitive appraisals, EI was associated with higher intensity of pleasant emotions and perceived performances. As an applied implication, we encourage sport psychologists and coaches to provide training programs aimed at enhancing EI.

The evaluation of the effects of sport psychology interventions on performance and related outcomes is a central issue in evidence-based practice. Although there is an extensive literature in the domain of sport psychology, recent meta-analyses have only identified a few interventional studies that test the effects of different psychological interventions on performance (Brown and Fletcher, 2017;Lochbaum et al., 2022). While Brown and Fletcher (2017) identified 35 randomized controlled trials, Lochbaum et al. (2022) reviewed 13 meta-analyses examining the effects of various types of psychological interventions on sport performance. Although positive effects have been reported, effect sizes are heterogeneous and depend on the type of intervention (psychological or psychosocial), the techniques used (single or multi-component), and population characteristics (e.g., sex). Thus, there is a clear lack of evidence, and greater efforts need to be made to provide professional practitioners with support that is based on reliable research. This issue is even more critical when focusing on elite performance. 'Elite' can be defined in various ways, and the literature proposes different taxonomies (e.g., Swann et al., 2015;McKay et al., 2022). In particular, McKay et al. (2022) suggest a classification system that ranges from 'sedentary' (Tier 0) to 'world-class' (Tier 5). Tiers 4 and 5 describe groups of athletes who perform within 7% of world-record performance, with maximum or near-maximum training loads. All athletes in these tiers compete at international level, are ranked in the top 300 in their respective sport, and represent 0.003% of the global population. Their best performance relies on tiny, yet key details. Thus, it is crucial to better understand the impact of psychological interventions on performance in this specific population. Against this background, Brown and Fletcher (2017) evaluated the effects of sport psychology interventions on performance; their meta-analysis found that only one of the 35 included studies was conducted with 'international' athletes. Thus, evidence regarding the effectiveness of sport psychology interventions on performance in elite athletes seems very weak.Interventional Research Designs in Elite Sport: A Brief Review from 2012 to 2024We conducted a brief review to understand how researchers evaluate and gather empirical evidence on the effectiveness of sport psychology interventions in elite athletes. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we searched SportDiscuss for studies, using the keywords: (Elite OR Expert) AND Athlete AND Sport AND (Intervention OR Program) AND Psychology NOT (Amateur OR Junior OR Adolescent). Studies were included if they met the following criteria: (a) they were interventional studies, (b) they were conducted with elite athletes (Tiers 4 or 5, as defined by McKay et al., 2022), and (c) they were published in peer-reviewed journals within the past 12 years. Initially, 652 articles were screened by an independent rater, resulting in the exclusion of 571 studies that were either meta-analyses, theses, or did not involve a psychological intervention. Of the 81 remaining articles, we assessed participant "eliteness" (score >8) using the taxonomy of Swann et al. (2015), which categorizes athletes as "semi-elite", "competitive elite", "successful elite", or "world-class elite". This assessment was based on a modified equation proposed by Gupta et al. (2017). Ultimately, only 11 studies were retained (see Table 1). Three designs were identified: case studies (n = 6), control group (n = 1), and randomized controlled trial (RCT) with a waitlist (n = 2). Measures were based on qualitative (n = 1), quantitative (n = 6), and mixed (n = 4) methods. Two studies measured objective effects on performance as a shooting score (Bortoli et al., 2012;Gröpel et al., 2020), while one study used global performance (i.e., selection, medals) (Dupee et al., 2016;Takeuchi et al., 2023). This brief review highlights that very few studies have been published over the past 12 years. We identify two main methodological boundaries, related to the specificities of elite performance, which limit interventional research studies. First, the population of elite athletes is very small, and training constraints mean that they are seldom available to take part in a time-consuming interventional study (McKay et al., 2022). In these conditions, implementing an RCT, recognized as the gold standard in psychology or health research, is not only almost impossible, but also inappropriate. Second, researchers face the difficulty of capturing the effects of psychological interventions on actual performance. The multifactorial nature of sport performance (where psychological, physical, and social factors are interwoven), and the complexity of the environment (luck, variable and uncertain conditions, etc.) make it very difficult to demonstrate the specific effects of psychological interventions. Moreover, the 'plateau' phenomena is well-known among elite athletes, which means that any improvement is not only extremely tiny, but also not statistically significant (Lochbaum et al., 2022).Given these boundaries, sport psychology researchers must address the question of methodological standards in the field. They should also consider alternative ways to strengthen the evidence base and reinforce the effectiveness of sport psychology within this particular population.Two types of design-single-case, and one group longitudinal-merit more attention as potential alternatives to the RCT. Based on an idiographic approach, single-case, or n-of-one designs are an opportunity to implement and evaluate the effects of a tailored intervention in one, or a few a supprimé: for and selected interventional studies conducted with elite cases (e.g., one or a few athletes, coaches, or teams), while respecting real-life contextual and cultural specificities. Initially promoted in the domain of sport psychology by Hrycaiko and Martin (1996), and later Barker et al. (2013), the approach deserves renewed consideration. In particular, recent criticism of the RCT standard (Diener et al., 2022;Deaton & Cartwright, 2018;Cook, 2018) has driven substantial progress in the development of single-case designs and data analysis, and the approach could be a promising alternative to approximating causal inference in intervention research with elite athletes (Levin & Ferron, 2021;Manolov & Moeyaert, 2017).One group longitudinal designs are another particularly interesting approach to overcoming the specific boundaries of research in elite sport. They consist in implementing an intervention in one group, and multiplying outcome variable measures at baseline, and throughout the intervention (Cece et al., 2022(Cece et al., , 2023;;Levillain et al., 2023). An ecological (e.g., a single-item definitional) approach, which emphasizes studying phenomena in their natural settings and accounting for the real-world constraints faced by elite athletes, can be particularly valuable. When combined with an innovative, multilevel statistical approach, such methods can provide new insights into the effects of interventions on psychological variables and performance.As noted above, the effects of psychological interventions on actual performance have been insufficiently evaluated (Brown and Fletcher, 2017). However, this should be a primary goal, in order to validate professional practice. While scores, times, or distances may be meaningful indicators in some sports, they are not applicable in others. Building upon previous contributions on performance analysis (e.g., Araujo et al., 2016;Sarmento et al., 2022), it is important to develop and apply individual and team performance assessment methods in real-world conditions, based on an integrated, holistic approach (i.e., considering physical, technical, tactical, and psychosocial aspects). Rather than considering performance in terms of sports results (which depend on others' outcomes, luck, refereeing...), performance can be evaluated by assessing the quality of the execution of procedures or behaviors underlying sport performance. Notational analysis, athlete position analysis, or biomechanical analysis are all possible ways to measure performance, and these can also be combined.Mixed methods, which involve using both quantitative and qualitative methods within the same design, can help identify and explain the effects of interventions in elite populations (Mertens and Tarsilla, 2015). They allow researchers to take advantage of the strengths of both qualitative research (e.g., to describe the experience of athletes or coaches taking part in the intervention), and quantitative research, which uses outcome variables to determine effects (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2017). More specifically, a parallel and convergent mixed method might provide a more complete, contextual, and complex understanding of the effects, mechanisms, and underlying processes at play in a psychological intervention.Three key challenges warrant attention to develop a reliable corpus of evidence regarding the effectiveness of psychological interventions in elite sport: (a) designing interventional studies with an optimal trade-off between rigor and relevance; (b) documenting mediating and moderating variables that strengthen effects of the intervention (e.g., the quality of the relation with the intervener, see Levillain et al., 2023); and (c) collaborating with practitioners to encourage implementation and a supprimé: adapted to the constraints of elite athletes, 127 transfer into real-life elite sport contexts. Addressing these three challenges may help researchers to improve both the quality and utility of interventional studies in elite sport.Authors

During sporting competitions, athletes are confronted with stress. To cope with stress, they resort to a number of strategies that affect both their emotions and their performance. The aim of this study was to identify the different stress and coping profiles, their transitions during the sports season, and their effects on emotions and performance. A sample of 385 athletes (88 women and 297 men, Mage = 20, SD = 6) from various disciplines completed the Coping Function Questionnaire, Sport Emotion Questionnaire, Attainment of Sport Achievement Goal Scale and a visual analogue scale to assess stress level. These questionnaires were completed over five measurements across the competitive season. Latent profile transition analysis (LPTA) revealed the existence of three stress and coping profiles, stable over time: Low stress and coping (low use of all strategies to cope with the demands of the situation), Moderate stress and task-oriented coping (the most appropriate profile because the subjective performance scores are the highest), Moderate stress and high coping (strong use of all strategies to cope). Depending on the profile, emotions and perceived performance scores differed. Specifically, performance and the intensity of emotions such as joy and excitement tended to increase, while the intensity of emotions such as anger and dejection decreased depending on the coping strategies used. Knowing that athletes with moderate stress levels using a combination of coping strategies were characterised by better perceived performance may help practitioners to better prepare athletes and encourage the use of multiple coping strategies.

The aim of the study was to identify distinct trajectories of perceived stress and control in athletes across a season of sports competitions and whether these trajectory memberships could be predicted by subdimensions of the emotional intelligence (EI). Latent class growth analyses were performed on a five-stage longitudinal measurement plan (to cover the entire sporting season). Four hundred fifteen athletes answered to the Brief Emotional Intelligence Scale, the Mastery Scale, the Perceived Stress Scale, and the Attainment of Sport Achievement Goal Scale. The analyses revealed two trajectories of perceived stress (one trajectory adapted and one maladapted to performance) and two trajectories of perceived control (one trajectory adapted and one maladapted to performance). Moreover, athletes with higher emotional intelligence emotion regulation scores belong significantly more to performance-adaptive trajectories. The obtained results could contribute to the advancement of emotional intelligence intervention programs to optimize the dynamics of perceived stress and control within the sporting season.

This study examined the effect of a Slow-Paced Breath (i.e., 6 breaths per minute) without Biofeedback (SPB-NoHRVB) protocol on semi-elite adolescent swimmers’ psychological and physiological states during a seven-week ecological training period. A linear mixed-effects multilevel regression analysis approach was used with 13 adolescent national-level swimmers. Athletes were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n = 7) and a control group (n = 6). Seven waves of assessments were completed weekly during a seven-week training preparation in ecological conditions. During the protocol, swimmers completed subjective quantitative measures (RESTQ-36-R-Sport; cognitive perceived stress and control states about the training process, training subjective performance, and subjective internal training load) and physiological heart rate (HR) (HR of exercise, absolute and normalized HR recovery during the first 60 s of recovery; HRR60 and nHRR60) and heart rate variability (HRV) (MeanRR, RMSSD, LFnu and HFnu, LF/HF ration) tests (through a submaximal heart rate (5′-5′ test) once a week. Results revealed that the SPB-NoHRVB protocol significantly predicts biopsychosocial recovery states, cognitive perception of control, and training subjective performance (i.e., a significant effect of the SPB-NoHRVB protocol with the dependent variables simple time trajectories). However, no significant effects were found for biopsychosocial stress scales, cognitively perceived stress, HR, or HRV markers. Our results suggest that SPB-NoHRVB induces simple evolutions over time for crucial variables in athletes’ adaptation to the training process (i.e., cognitive appraisals and biopsychosocial states). In contrast, it highlights that SPB-NoHRVB does not induce better stress states. This specific effect on the resource component is an exciting result that will be discussed in the manuscript.

The aims of this study were: (a) to explore the relationships between adaptive defense mechanisms (ADMs), maladaptive defense mechanisms (MADMs), stress, recovery, resilience, and sport burnout; and (b) to examine resilience, stress, and recovery as mediators of the relationship between defense mechanisms and burnout. One hundred and seventy-five athletes (M = 20.30 years, SD = 3.75) completed self-report questionnaires assessing defense mechanisms, resilience, stress, and recovery. Correlation analysis revealed that MADMs were positively associated with burnout, while ADMs had no significant link with burnout. Concerning mediation analysis, results showed a mediating effect of resilience in the relationship between ADMs and burnout. The findings also demonstrated a mediating effect of resilience and recovery in the relationship between MADMs and burnout. Our study highlighted that certain defenses categorized as adaptive might not be suitable in specific situations, thus underscoring the influence of mediating variables. The findings of mediation analysis demonstrated that resilience appears to serve as a particularly protective factor against burnout. On the contrary, MADMs would have a deleterious influence in the management of stress, which could lead to burnout. Coaches may consider fostering athletes’ resilience in conjunction with ADMs and implementing targeted psychological exercises to reduce the use of MADMs.

This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of online emotional competencies (EC) training, and more specifically the relationships between adherence, confidence, and alliance and the effects of mental training on EC. A longitudinal four-wave measurement design (pre-intervention, post-knowledge development, post-abilities development, and post-disposition phase) was used in the present study. An experimental group (n = 20) received a specific EC training intervention, whereas the control group (n = 20) did not receive this intervention program. These two groups completed self-report questionnaires assessing emotional regulation and EC across four measurement times. Participants of the intervention group also completed a questionnaire measuring the adherence, confidence, alliance between practitioner and athlete. Results of repeated measure ANOVAs showed that the level of EC increased significantly in the intervention group but not in the control group. Moreover, correlation analyses highlighted significant relationships between the scores of adherence, confidence, alliance between the practitioner and the tennis player, and the scores difference of EC between before and after intervention. These outcomes suggest the possibility of improving EC with an online intervention. The online device did not affect the quality of the alliance between the practitioner and the intervention participant. Furthermore, the results showed that a high level of alliance, confidence, and adherence was associated with an improvement in emotional intelligence. This online program would serve psychologists and mental trainers to use an intervention to develop EC adapted to the constraints of the localisation of athletes.

This study examined the effect of an asynchronous heart rate variability biofeedback (HRV-BFBasync) protocol on national-level adolescent swimmers' cognitive appraisals and recovery-stress states during a six-week ecological training period. A polynomial mixed-effects multilevel regression analysis approach was used with 27 adolescent national-level swimmers randomly assigned to an intervention group (n = 14) and a control group (n = 13). Six waves of assessments of cognitive appraisals and recovery-stress states were completed during six weeks of training preparation in ecological conditions. The results revealed that the HRV-BFBasync protocol significantly predicts lower levels of biopsychosocial stress states and cognitive stress. However, no significant effects were found for biopsychosocial recovery scales and cognitive perceived control. The results suggested that total stress states, sport-specific stress, and cognitive perceived stress evolutions are a function of polynomial time third-degree interactions with HRV-BFB protocol. Overall, this study suggested that the HRV-BFBasync protocol leads adolescent athletes to experience lower biopsychosocial and cognitive stress levels during training periodization. Our results also suggest that HRV-BFB induces complex evolutions over time for stress and recovery states but does not have a predictive function for the recovery states and perceived control.

OBJECTIVES:This study explored whether several subgroups of athletes representing distinct trajectories of intensity and direction of pleasant and unpleasant emotions (anger, anxiety, dejection, excitement, and happiness) could be shown to exist within the latent growth analysis (LCGA). A secondary objective was to examine whether athletes belonging to distinct trajectories of intensity and direction of emotions reported distinct scores of adaptive defense mechanisms (ADM) and maladaptive defense mechanisms (MDM). DESIGN:A longitudinal four-wave measurement design was used in the present study. METHOD:380 athletes completed the sports emotion questionnaire direction across four measurement times and the defense style questionnaire at the beginning of the season. RESULTS:Results of LCGAs revealed several distinct emotional trajectories for each emotion intensity and emotion direction. Moreover, athletes belonging to distinct (adaptive or maladaptive) trajectories reported significantly different scores of ADM and MDM. Higher scores of ADM were reported by athletes belonging to adaptive trajectories of the direction of emotions. CONCLUSIONS:Sports psychologists should try to promote ADM and defensive flexibility to help athletes perceive their emotions as facilitative.

What If Leisure Time Activities Were a Solution for Athletes’ Long-Term

Ce travail doctoral a eu comme principal objectif de mieux comprendre l’influence des mécanismes de défense et de l’intelligence émotionnelle sur les trajectoires émotionnelles afin de proposer une intervention ciblée et adaptée pour développer les compétences émotionnelles des sportifs. Pour ce faire, six études ont été menées. Une première étude a permis de montrer que l’exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) est le meilleur modèle pour représenter la structure factorielle du sport emotion questionnaire (SEQ). L’invariance temporelle des scores du SEQ à partir de l’ESEM a pu être vérifiée afin de pouvoir identifier différentes trajectoires émotionnelles sans biais. Dans une deuxième étude, les analyses de classes latentes de courbes de croissance ont mis en exergue l’hétérogénéité et la variabilité intra-individuelle des athlètes dans leur expérience émotionnelle. De plus, des différences significatives de scores pour les sous-dimensions en IE-trait ont été observées en fonction de l’appartenance à des trajectoires émotionnelles adaptées ou mal-adaptées. Une troisième étude a investigué la direction des émotions à partir de la validation au préalable d’une échelle de direction au SEQ. La distinction entre l’intensité et la direction des émotions a été vérifiée avec des relations différentes avec le score global des compétences émotionnelles mais également avec l’atteinte de buts, la performance subjective et l’efficacité des stratégies de coping dans une quatrième étude. Cette distinction s’est retrouvée dans une cinquième étude avec l’identification de différentes trajectoires pour l’intensité et la direction des émotions des athlètes. Les résultats ont également montré que les mécanismes de défense joueraient un rôle dans l’appartenance à des trajectoires émotionnelles adaptées ou mal-adaptées. Dans une sixième étude, nous avons conceptualisé, testé et évalué un accompagnement psychologique individualisé à distance pour développer les compétences émotionnelles des sportifs. Les résultats ont mis en évidence la possibilité d’améliorer les compétences émotionnelles à distance, associée à l’alliance praticien/pratiquant ainsi que l’adhésion et la croyance dans l’efficacité du programme interventionnel. Au travers de ces résultats, ce travail doctoral propose des recommandations pratiques aux entraîneurs et aux praticiens en psychologie du sport sur l’accompagnement psychologique, l’individualisation des interventions et la prévention afin de permettre aux sportifs de mieux s’adapter en compétition.