Assessing the distribution and persistence of species across their range is a crucial component of wildlife conservation. It demands data at adequate spatial scales and over extended periods of time, which may only be obtained through collaborative efforts, and the development of methods that integrate heterogeneous datasets. We aimed to combine existing data on large carnivores to evaluate population dynamics and improve knowledge on their distribution nationwide.

Considerable research has been conducted on cheetah ecology. Cheetahs can exist in a wide variety of habitats from thick scrub to open grassland, and habitat selection is based on a variety of factors, including visibility, prey density, and avoidance of competitively superior predators. Cheetahs naturally occur at low densities and require a prey base of small to medium-sized ungulates that can be consumed rapidly, minimizing the risks for cheetahs of being detected by larger carnivores that can usurp their kills. Cheetahs exhibit wide ranging movements and large home ranges—over 2000 km2 in some areas. Reported densities generally range from 0.3 to 3.0 adult cheetahs per 100 km2. The species distribution, density, and activity patterns are impacted by human activities and the presence of larger carnivores. Understanding cheetah habitat requirements and movement ecology, especially pertaining to long-distance movements, will become progressively more important as the cheetah's range becomes increasingly fragmented.

Preservation and protection of land have been common means to achieve species conservation, but could be argued to have limited effectiveness for wide-ranging species, such as the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), that live predominantly outside protected areas (PAs). Some regions outside PAs are reported to have higher cheetah densities than PAs because cheetahs can be limited by apex predators on protected land. However, formally protected sites have multifaceted importance for cheetah conservation. With expanding human populations, the importance of national parks, reserves, and conservancies to safeguard cheetahs is increasing. These PAs may serve as population sources for unprotected land, provided management and law enforcement are adequate. An effective PA network will include connectivity in a matrix that does not function as a sink. Additionally, PAs can empower local communities through opportunities for ecotourism development. PAs can also act as important study sites to gather information on "natural" systems. To assist cheetah conservation, financial investment and long-term strategic plans are needed if PAs are to achieve success in their ecological, social, and economic goals.

Cheetahs have unique social and mating systems, as well as hunting techniques. Males are either territory holders defending small territories or floaters roaming in large, overlapping, undefended home ranges. Both spatial tactics are adopted by solitary males or coalitions of males. Females are solitary unless accompanied by offspring. They give birth to two to six cubs, which are hidden in a lair for the first 2 months. In ecosystems with other large predator species, cheetahs adopt several predator avoidance behaviors. Nevertheless, cubs can suffer from high mortality by lions and spotted hyenas, and adult cheetahs may lose kills to kleptoparasites. Cheetahs primarily hunt abundant, small to medium sized prey animals using high-speed chases over short distances. They mainly communicate with vocalization and olfaction, often using prominent landmarks for scent marking. Given the increasing human pressure on carnivores, conservation efforts would benefit from behavioral data in human inhabited areas.

Assessing the numbers and distribution of threatened species is a central challenge in conservation, often made difficult because the species of concern are rare and elusive. For some predators, this may be compounded by their being sparsely distributed over large areas. Such is the case with the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. The IUCN Red List process solicits comments, is democratic, transparent, widely-used, and has recently assessed the species. Here, we present additional methods to that process and provide quantitative approaches that may afford greater detail and a benchmark against which to compare future assessments. The cheetah poses challenges, but also affords unique opportunities. It is photogenic, allowing the compilation of thousands of crowd-sourced data. It is also persecuted for killing livestock, enabling estimation of local population densities from the numbers persecuted. Documented instances of persecution in areas with known human and livestock density mean that these data can provide an estimate of where the species may or may not occur in areas without observational data. Compilations of extensive telemetry data coupled with nearly 20,000 additional observations from 39 sources show that free-ranging cheetahs were present across approximately 789,700 km2 of Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe (56%, 22%, 12% and 10% respectively) from 2010 to 2016, with an estimated adult population of 3,577 animals. We identified a further 742,800 km2 of potential cheetah habitat within the study region with low human and livestock densities, where another ∼3,250 cheetahs may occur. Unlike many previous estimates, we make the data available and provide explicit information on exactly where cheetahs occur, or are unlikely to occur. We stress the value of gathering data from public sources though these data were mostly from well-visited protected areas. There is a contiguous, transboundary population of cheetah in southern Africa, known to be the largest in the world. We suggest that this population is more threatened than believed due to the concentration of about 55% of free-ranging individuals in two ecoregions. This area overlaps with commercial farmland with high persecution risk; adult cheetahs were removed at the rate of 0.3 individuals per 100 km2 per year. Our population estimate for confirmed cheetah presence areas is 11% lower than the IUCN’s current assessment for the same region, lending additional support to the recent call for the up-listing of this species from vulnerable to endangered status.

This book demonstrates how cheetahs are adapted to arid savannahs like the southern Kalahari, and makes comparisons with other areas, especially the Serengeti. Topics dealt with are: demography and genetic status; feeding ecology, i.e. methods used for studying diet, diets of different demographic groups, individual diet specializations of females, prey selection, the impact of cheetah predation on prey populations, activity regimes and distances travelled per day, hunting behaviour, foraging success and energetics; interspecific competition; spatial ecology; reproductive success and the mating system; and conservation. The major findings show that cheetahs are well adapted to arid ecosystems and are water independent. Cheetah density in the study area was stable at 0.7/100 km2 and the population was genetically diverse. Important prey were steenbok and springbok for females with cubs, gemsbok, and adult ostrich for coalition males, and steenbok, springhares, and hares for single animals. Cheetahs had a density-dependent regulatory effect on steenbok and springbok populations. Females with large cubs had the highest overall food intake. Cheetahs, especially males, were often active at night, and competition with other large carnivores, both by exploitation and interference, was slight. Although predation on small cubs was severe, cub survival to adolescence was six times higher than in the Serengeti. There was no difference in reproductive success between single and coalition males. The conservation priority for cheetahs should be to maintain protected areas over a spectrum of landscapes to allow ecological processes, of which the cheetah is an integral part, to proceed unhindered.

Summary1. Conflict between people and large carnivores is an urgent conservation issue world‐wide. Understanding the underlying ecological drivers of livestock depredation by large carnivores is greatly needed.2. We studied the spatial, foraging and behavioural ecology of African lions Panthera leo in the Botswana Makgadikgadi ecosystem. This ecosystem comprises a protected area, characterized by high seasonal fluctuation in wild prey abundance, and adjacent lands, which are used for livestock grazing and characterized by stable livestock abundance, but also a risk of anthropogenic mortality.3. Makgadikgadi lions preferentially preyed upon migratory wild herbivores when they were present; however, data from GPS (Global Positioning System) radiocollared lions revealed that the majority of the study lions did not follow the migratory herds but remained resident at one or other border of the park and switched to livestock (abundant and readily available), and to a lesser extent resident wild herbivores (relatively scarce), in periods of migratory wild herbivore scarcity.4. Resident lions’ use of space differed between periods of wild prey abundance and scarcity. These changes were likely to increase the frequency of encounter with their primary prey in periods of primary prey abundance and with livestock in periods of primary prey scarcity.5. The risk of conflict with humans was a major driver of lion ecology in the human‐dominated landscape surrounding the protected area. Resident lions generally avoided the close vicinity of cattle‐posts. When they used such areas, they avoided temporal overlap with periods that humans were most active and travelled at high speed reducing the time spent in these areas.6. Synthesis and applications. This study suggests that lions balance the benefits of accessing livestock with the costs associated with livestock raiding. Hence, reduction in livestock availability through effective livestock husbandry in periods of wild prey scarcity should lead to reduced conflict.

Infectious diseases impact African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), but the nature and magnitude of this threat likely varies among populations according to different factors, such as the presence and prevalence of pathogens and land-use characteristics. We systematically evaluated these factors to assist development of locally appropriate strategies to mitigate disease risk. Wild dogs from 16 sites representing five unconnected populations were examined for rabies virus, canine distemper virus (CDV), canine parvovirus, canine coronavirus, and Babesia spp. exposure. Analyses revealed widespread exposure to viral pathogens, but Babesia was never detected. Exposure to CDV was associated with unprotected and protected-unfenced areas where wild dogs likely have a high probability of domestic dog contact and, in the case of protected-unfenced areas, likely reside amongst high wildlife densities. Our findings also suggest that domestic dog contact may increase rabies and coronavirus exposure risk. Therefore, domestic dogs may be a source of CDV, rabies and coronavirus, while wildlife may also play an important role in CDV transmission dynamics. Relatively high parvovirus seroprevalence across land-use types suggests that it might persist in the absence of spillover from domestic dogs. Should intervention be needed to control pathogens in wild dogs, efforts to prevent rabies and coronavirus exposure might be directed at reducing infection in the presumed domestic dog reservoir through vaccination. If prevention of CDV and parvovirus infections were deemed a management necessity, control of disease in domestic dogs may be insufficient to reduce transmission risks, and vaccination of wild dogs themselves may be the optimal strategy.

We quantified livestock (cattle, shoats, horses and donkeys) losses to lions (Panthera leo) and attitudes to lions, livestock losses and tourism among livestock owners, village residents and tourism workers around Makgadikgadi Pans National Park in Botswana. Losses were not correlated with the size or structure of livestock enclosures, numbers of dogs or herders. Rather losses increased with the amount of livestock owned. Most were stray animals preyed upon at night. Attitudes to wildlife, conservation and lions were also not consistently distributed within the society we studied. Negative attitudes to lions were almost ubiquitous among cattleposts but less widespread among people living in the more urbanized society of villages or among people working in tourism.Although four tourist camps were operating in the area, benefits from these operations were largely limited to employees. Despite considerable sums of money being paid to Botswana by local tourist facilities few respondents viewed tourism as valuable and most felt that the government and not they or their community was the main beneficiary of tourism. Tourism employees made up a small sub-section of the adult population drawn predominately from larger villages while the costs of livestock losses were spread among cattleposts near the park boundary. These same cattlepost respondents were not prepared to improve stock care to protect livestock, but indicated a willingness to kill lions instead. If tourism is to play a role in reducing human-wildlife conflict, communities must not be regarded as homogenous entities into which to distribute benefits evenly. Benefits might usefully be distributed in relation to the costs of coexisting with wildlife or used as incentives to better protect livestock or other human resources. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Knowledge of mammalian diversity is still surprisingly disparate, both regionally and taxonomically. Here, we present a comprehensive assessment of the conservation status and distribution of the world's mammals. Data, compiled by 1700+ experts, cover all 5487 species, including marine mammals. Global macroecological patterns are very different for land and marine species but suggest common mechanisms driving diversity and endemism across systems. Compared with land species, threat levels are higher among marine mammals, driven by different processes (accidental mortality and pollution, rather than habitat loss), and are spatially distinct (peaking in northern oceans, rather than in Southeast Asia). Marine mammals are also disproportionately poorly known. These data are made freely available to support further scientific developments and conservation action.

The lion Panthera leo is one of the world's most charismatic carnivores and is one of Africa's key predators. Here, we used a large dataset from 357 lions comprehending 1.13 megabases of sequence data and genotypes from 22 microsatellite loci to characterize its recent evolutionary history. Patterns of molecular genetic variation in multiple maternal (mtDNA), paternal (Y-chromosome), and biparental nuclear (nDNA) genetic markers were compared with patterns of sequence and subtype variation of the lion feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV(Ple)), a lentivirus analogous to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In spite of the ability of lions to disperse long distances, patterns of lion genetic diversity suggest substantial population subdivision (mtDNA Phi(ST) = 0.92; nDNA F(ST) = 0.18), and reduced gene flow, which, along with large differences in sero-prevalence of six distinct FIV(Ple) subtypes among lion populations, refute the hypothesis that African lions consist of a single panmictic population. Our results suggest that extant lion populations derive from several Pleistocene refugia in East and Southern Africa ( approximately 324,000-169,000 years ago), which expanded during the Late Pleistocene ( approximately 100,000 years ago) into Central and North Africa and into Asia. During the Pleistocene/Holocene transition ( approximately 14,000-7,000 years), another expansion occurred from southern refugia northwards towards East Africa, causing population interbreeding. In particular, lion and FIV(Ple) variation affirms that the large, well-studied lion population occupying the greater Serengeti Ecosystem is derived from three distinct populations that admixed recently.

Summary We evaluated one of the most extensive efforts to date to re‐introduce an endangered species: attempts to establish an actively managed meta‐population of African wild dogs Lycaon pictus in South Africa. Using an information‐theoretic approach, known‐fate modelling in program mark was employed to estimate the survival of re‐introduced wild dogs and their offspring, and to model covariate effects relative to survival. Multiple a priori hypotheses on correlates of re‐introduction success were tested (collated from extensive individual experiences) using different re‐introduction attempts as natural quasi experiments. Survival analyses revealed that the determinants of re‐introduction success can be reduced to two factors relevant for management, suggesting that wild dog re‐introductions should be attempted with socially integrated animals that are released into securely fenced areas, unless measures are implemented to mitigate human‐related mortalities outside protected areas. Synthesis and application. This study illustrates that monitoring and evaluation of conservation efforts, complimented with expert knowledge, forms the foundation of informed decision‐making to underpin management recommendations with scientific evidence, particularly if the proposed actions are controversial.

Effective species conservation depends upon correctly identifying the threats that cause decline or hinder recovery. Because estimates of the relative viability of different populations of Endangered African wild dogs Lycaon pictus are most strongly influenced by adult and pup mortality, we analysed rates and causes of mortality in eight wild dog populations under study in southern and eastern Africa. The probabilities of detecting wild dog deaths were influenced by the monitoring methods used. The least biased estimates of mortality causes were obtained through intensive monitoring of radio-collared individuals; this is impossible for pups, however. Mortality patterns varied substantially between populations. Rates of human-caused mortality were higher for wild dogs radio-collared outside protected areas than for those collared inside, but rates of natural mortality were comparable, suggesting that anthropogenic mortality is additive to natural mortality. The relative importance of factors such as snaring and infectious disease also varied regionally. Hence, although our analyses identified no new threats beyond those highlighted in a 1997 range-wide Action Plan, they suggest that local plans will be valuable to target conservation activities more precisely.

Support for Michael Somers: The Green Trust (WWF-SA) Endangered Wildlife Trust Third World Academy of Science Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife The Conservation Trust The Wild Dog Foundation The Sally Club for support Centre for Invasion Biology

edited by David Macdonald. Oxford University Press, 2001. £35.00 hbk (xxxi + 930 pages)

The distribution of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in South Africa appears to have increased over the past 25 years. This is due to a change in land use from cattle ranching to wildlife ranching. The largest part of the cheetah population occurs outside conservation areas on privately owned ranch land. The Kruger National Park and the Kgalagadi Transfronteir Park are the two most important conservation areas for cheetahs due to their large size and pristine habitat. The main threats to cheetahs are focused outside conservation areas and are the illegal trade, unregulated captive breeding and persecution. International trade in cheetahs is regulated by CITES and there is no quota for hunting of cheetahs. However, hunting trophies originating from the wild and captivity have been exported with CITES permits. Several programmes are in place aiming at conserving cheetah. Research is done both inside National Parks and on ranch lands. The National Cheetah Conservation Forum of South Africa (NCCF-SA) is an active forum with members from various organisations involved in cheetahs from conservation organisations, government departments, captive breeders, biologists, hunters and landowners. There is a relocation programme in place where cheetahs are relocated from ranch land to enclosed reserves to form a metapopulation. The most important steps to conserving cheetahs in South Africa have been identified as: metapopulation management, regulation and formalisation of the captive breeding industry, curbing the illegal trade, addressing persecution and conflict management and further research on cheetahs.