Individuals with below-average intellectual functioning face significant limitations in adaptive skills essential for daily living. They also experience delays in motor development. This study aims to assess the effects of Perceptual Motor Exercises (PME) on motor performance, social adaptation, and social self-efficacy in female students with mild intellectual disabilities (ID) through a randomized clinical trial. A randomized, single-blind clinical trial was conducted involving 26 female students with mild ID, selected through convenience sampling and divided into two groups: a control group and a PME group. All participants were assessed at baseline and after 8 weeks for motor performance using the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-3), social adaptation using the Adjustment Inventory by Sinha and Singh, and social self-efficacy using Wheeler and Weld’s Children’s Social Self-Efficacy for Peer Interaction Scale. Data were analyzed using ANCOVA. The ANCOVA test results showed a significant difference between the post-test scores of motor performance (F = 212.17, p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.90), social adaptation (F = 190.32, p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.89), and social self-efficacy (F = 62.38, p = 0.003, partial η2 = 0.73) between the research groups. The PME group demonstrated significant improvements in motor performance, social adaptation, and social self-efficacy compared to the control group. This clinical trial suggests that perceptual-motor exercises may positively influence motor performance, social adaptation, and social self-efficacy in female students with mild intellectual disabilities. By potentially enhancing motor and adaptive skills, PME could contribute to a more positive self-perception and support their participation in social contexts. This clinical trial was registered with Iran’s Clinical Trial Registration Center (IRCT) [IRCT20190908044722N4] on 26 February 2024.

BACKGROUND: Early life is a critical period for the development of motor skills, supporting brain function and cognitive performance. AIM: This study investigated the effects of sensory-motor integration exercises grounded in the Game Sense Approach (GSA) on working memory and fine motor skills in children with learning disorder. METHODS: A quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test design with a control group was employed. Thirty-six female children diagnosed with learning disorders were randomly assigned to three groups: GSA-based intervention, goal-oriented exercise, and control. Working memory was assessed using the N-back task, while fine motor skills were measured with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency. The intervention groups participated in two sessions per week 60-minute sessions over eight weeks, while the control group maintained routine activities. A mixed-design ANOVA was used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: Results showed that the GSA group exhibited significant improvements in working memory compared to the control group. In fine motor domains, the GSA group demonstrated greater gains in response speed, upper-limb agility, and visual-motor control compared to both goal-oriented and control groups. INTERPRETATION: These findings suggest that sensory-motor integration exercises implemented within a GSA framework may offer an effective strategy for enhancing cognitive and motor functioning in children with learning disorder.

Schizophrenia significantly impairs daily functioning, requiring innovative, cost-effective treatments beyond standard antipsychotics, and cognitive interventions. This study examined the individual and combined effects of cognitive, music, and aerobic exercise interventions on depression, balance, and mobility in patients with schizophrenia and severe depression. Eighty-four male patients with schizophrenia and severe depression from an inpatient psychiatric centre participated in a 12-week, single-blind, randomised active-controlled trial. Participants were systematically assigned to one of seven equal groups ( n = 12 each): aerobic exercise (AerG), cognitive rehabilitation/treatment-as-usual (CogG), music intervention (MusG), aerobic exercise + music intervention (A&MG), aerobic exercise + cognitive intervention (A&CG), cognitive intervention + music intervention (C&MG), and a comprehensive combination of all three modalities (ACMG). Each intervention was delivered over 60 min, three times weekly for 12 weeks. The study employed the Beck Depression Inventory Short Form, Stork Balance Test, and modified Timed Up and Go Test to assess improvements in depression, balance, and mobility. Statistical analyses were conducted using paired t-tests for within-group comparisons and ANCOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests for between-group differences, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. Results showed significant improvements in depression, balance, and mobility across all treatment groups. The CogG group outperformed both AerG and MusG in all outcomes, establishing it as the gold-standard comparator. A&CG yielded greater benefits than other single or dual-modality groups, while the multimodal ACMG group demonstrated the most substantial improvements across all measures. These findings highlight the practical value of incorporating multimodal interventions into standard care to improve both mental health and physical function, offering a scalable, cost-effective approach to addressing the diverse needs of this population of patients with schizophrenia and severe depression. Implementing such interventions in psychiatric care settings could lead to more comprehensive and effective treatment strategies for improving patient outcomes.

Background: Despite the growing body of research showing the effectiveness of motor interventions for children both physically and cognitively, there is still a lack of sufficient information regarding the effects of different motor programs and finding suitable interventions to improve motor and cognitive skills in early childhood. This study was conducted to investigate and compare the effects of cognitive and metacognitive factors in motor interventions on the motor and cognitive skills of preschool children. Methods: Sixty-six 6-year-old children (32 girls, 34 boys) participated in this study and were randomly assigned to three experimental groups (motor group (7 girls, 10 boys), motor-cognitive group (8 girls, 8 boys), and motor-metacognitive group (7 girls, 9 boys)) along with a control group (10 girls, 7 boys). The participants in all three experimental groups received a motor program specific to their group for 18 sessions. The Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency (BOT-2), the Toulouse-Pieron cancellation test (TP), and the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task (HTKS) were used to collect data. Multivariate repeated measures and multivariate analysis of covariance were used for data analysis. Results: The findings showed that, compared to the control group, the improvement of cognitive skills in the motor-cognitive group was more than that in the motor and motor-metacognitive groups (p < 0.05). Also, the improvement of motor skills in the motor-metacognitive group was more than that in the motor and motor-cognitive groups (p < 0.05). Conclusion: According to the results obtained, it seems that if motor interventions are combined with cognitive and metacognitive activities, they can have more cognitive and motor benefits for preschool children.

Background: Identifying the practice conditions that optimize the learning of motor skills is one of the main objectives in the area of human motor learning research. Aim: The present study aims to explore the effect of success criteria in high-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states among female students. Materials and Methods: This practical quasi-experimental study was conducted in a field setting. The participants were 30 female students from Yazd University, selected through convenience sampling. Completing the consent form, the selected participants were randomly divided into three groups: high-error practice with a large target (n= 10), high-error practice with a small target (n= 10), and a high-error control group (n= 10). Then, mixed ANOVA was applied in order to test the hypotheses. Results: The results revealed that both of the large and small target groups significantly outperformed the control group regarding the difference in performance accuracy. Moreover, considering mood states, in the small target group, significant differences were observed in the calmness, happiness, and total mood state subscales, while in the large target group, significant differences were found in the vigor, happiness, depression, and total mood state subscales. In terms of self-efficacy, significant differences were observed in the level and power dimensions in small target group; however, the power dimension was the mere aspect revealing significant difference in the large target group. Conclusion: The use of success criteria in high-error practice methods is beneficial, and it is recommended to adopt this approach to improve accuracy and stability in the practice sessions.

Introduction: Hearing impairment is a type of children's sensory disorder that cause problems in the daily life of children and parents. This research aimed to determine the effect of sensory-motor training on fine motor skills and the psychological well-being of children with hearing impairment.Methods: This applied research was a quasi-experimental type with a pre-test and post-test design. The statistical population included children with a hearing impairment from the elementary exceptional student education center in Ardabil City. To participate in this research, the hearing threshold of each student was measured using an audiometer. By using the convenience sampling method, 20 samples were selected and assigned to two control (N=10) and experimental (N=10) groups. The measurement tools included Peabody Developmental Motor Scale (PDMS) for fine motor skills and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) for psychological well-being assessment. No training was given to the groups before the intervention. The experimental group performed 45-minute sessions of sensory-motor integration training for eight weeks and six days a week, by imitating the coach's movements and trying to coordinate with the group at the same time. The control group participated in daily activities. The analysis of the covariance (ANCOVA) test was used for statistical analysis.Results: sensory-motor integration training had a significant effect on improving children's fine motor skills and well-being and cause improvement in the levels of both factors.Conclusion: Participating in sensory-motor training can be of great help in reducing motor and psychological problems of children with hearing impairment.

Introduction: Growth is an uninterrupted, permanent, and continuous process and includes different dimensions. This study aimed to investigate the effect of rhythmic rebounding exercises on children's motor proficiency and motivation with a 6-month follow-up period.Methods: The current research was quasi-experimental with a pretest and posttest design. The statistical population was 9-10 years old children of Tabriz city, from which 30 people were selected by convenience sampling method and randomly divided into two experimental and control groups. The pre-test included the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency and the Children's Movement Motivation questionnaire. The experimental group performed the exercises on the rebounder for eight weeks, and the control group did not receive any intervention.Then, the post-test was conducted similarly to the pre-test. After six months period,a retention test was taken from participants of both groups. Statistical analysis was performed using mixed model Analysis of Variance at a significance level of 0.05 via SPSS version 24 software.Results: The results showed that the rhythmic rebounding exercises had a significant effect on the motor proficiency and motivation of 9-10 years old children so 95% of changes in gross motor skill and 98% of changes in children's movement motivation were probably influenced by the rebounding exercises.Conclusion: Jumping is a fundamental activity in children's motor development and motivation provides inner force for movement. According to the findings of this research, since rhythmic activities can create motivation for movement and sports activities develop motor skills, it is crucial to provide the necessary equipment and measures for children to use these exercises.

Introduction: In recent years, there has been considerable interest in the evolution of physical education teaching from a linear to a non-linear approach. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of traditional games with a hybrid of games for understanding and game sense teaching approaches on students' motor proficiency.Methods: This research was quasi-experimental with a pre-test and post-test design conducted in a field-based study. Fifty-five girl students (10-11years) were randomly divided into four groups: teaching game for understanding, game sense, hybrid of teaching game for understanding and game sense, and traditional group. Subjects practiced one-hour session three days a week according to their group's educational approach for 12 weeks. The Bruininks-Oseretsky test was used to assess children's motor proficiency.Results: The results of Mixed ANOVA showed a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test of the first three groups. So, it can be stated that for gross motor skills, the Hybrid group got the highest score with 79% of variance explained, and for fine motor skills and total motor proficiency, the teaching game for understanding got the highest scores with 84% and 85% of the variance explained, respectively. Traditional education did not have a significant effect on the investigated variables.Conclusion: It can be concluded that using the hybrid approach improves children's motor proficiency. The present study shows that teaching games for understanding and game sense models in the form of traditional games are a proper training method to improve motor proficiency in students. It seems that these approaches can be transferred to other educational levels

Background and Aims Balance disorder has been recognized as a leading cause of falls in the elderly. One way to strengthen the balance of the elderly is to use new technologies such as virtual reality. Purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of virtual reality exercises on the dynamic and functional balance of the elderly.Methods The present study was a quasi-experimental research with pre-test and post-test design. Subjects included 24 male aged 60-75 years that were selected by a convenience sampling method from Shabestar city and divided randomly into two virtual and control groups. Participants in the experimental group practiced for 9 weeks, but the control group continued their usual treatment programs. XBox device was used for virtual reality interventions. Also, in order to evaluate the functional and dynamic balance, Berg Balance Scale, and Up and go timed Test were used, respectively. MANCOVA and ANCOVA Tests were used at P<0.05 level to analyze the data.Results MACNOVA test results showed a significant difference (P=0.001) between two groups at least in one balance variable (dynamic and functional). Also, based on the results of ANCOVA test, due to better balance scores in the experimental group, virtual reality practice using Xbox improved their dynamic and functional balance compared to the control group.Conclusion This study provides evidence that dynamic and functional balance is modifiable in elderly people and that they respond to short-time VR training. It is suggested to use virtual reality as well as balance exercises as a suitable method of improving dynamic and functional balance abilities in the elderly.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of two instructional approaches (game based and traditional) on physical activity, self-determined motivation and physical activity enjoyment in university students who participated in physical education classes. This study was semi-experimental. The participants included 30 male university students (mean age 20.67±1.72 years) who were selected by convenience sampling method and randomly divided into two groups: game based instruction and traditional instruction. They participated in 18 sessions (for 6 weeks and 3 sessions a week) of basketball. The data were collected by the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time, Beurer pedometer, Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, and Self-Determination Questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, independent t test, ANCOVA, and RANCOVA were used for analysis of data. The results showed significant differences between game based and traditional groups in the duration of moderate to high intensity physical activity and the number of steps (P≤0.001). There were no significant differences in physical activity enjoyment and a sense of competence between game based and traditional groups; But there were significant differences between two groups in autonomy (P≤0.001) and belonging (P≤0.013).The results showed that game based instructional approach can enhance physical activity level and quality of motivation of university students in physical education classes.

Background: Acetone or propanone is a volatile liquid that can be absorbed by ingestion, inhalation, and dermal routes, and is distributed throughout the body. Case Presentation: This study presented a case of an employee of the Emergency Medical Center of North Khorasan Province, Iran, who died due to acetone poisoning. He was last seen alive approximately 4 hours before his body was found. Thus, the deceased was found 4 hours after death. He was a 25-year-old unmarried male nurse. He had a history of smoking for the last 4 years and reported diarrhea and nausea on the day before death. There was no history of diabetes or alcoholism as well as no other definite causes. According to interviews with his colleagues and family, he had no history of depression. A postmortem examination was performed to define the cause of death. Postmortem quantitative toxicological analysis with Gas Chromatography with Flame-Ionization Detection (GC-FID) presented acetone in the vitreous (35 mg/dL), blood (28 mg/dL), and urine (77 mg/dL) samples. Furthermore, in postmortem pathological analysis, highly microvascular changes and the diffuse necrosis of hepatocytes were reported. Other pathological changes in the brain and lungs were observed. No other definite medical cause of death was found. The cause of death was determined to be acute acetone intoxication. Conclusion: Contrary to public opinion, acetone is a toxic and dangerous substance; thus, it is necessary to improve and implement public safeguards concerning acetone usage, as well as its handling, and disposal. Organ toxicity due to acetone can be a major cause of death. Other alcohol-related poisoning deaths, such as acetone and other metabolites, should be considered.

1 School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran; 2 School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK; wp77@kent.ac.uk 3 School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran; ha.moha64@gmail.com 4 Department of Neuroscience, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; nazaripsycho@yahoo.com 5 School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK; Institute of Behavioral Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK; School of Rehabilitation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; a.h.javadi@gmail.com

Introduction: Diabetes mellitus has harmful effects on body functions, such as learning and memory. According to the role of exercise and medicinal plants on body health, the purpose of this study was to survey the effect of combined aerobic training and the use of Ripe Pistachio Hulls (RPH) hydro-alcoholic extract on learning and memory in streptozotocin-induced diabetic male rats. Methods: In this experimental study, 42 male Wistar rats weighing 250-280 g were used in 6 groups with an equal number of 7 rats in each one. Streptozotocin (STZ) (50 mg / kg)was used to induce diabetes, and the test protocol was applied for 8 weeks. Passive avoidance memory was assessed using a step-through passive avoidance apparatus (shuttle box). SPSS software was used to analyze the data and P<0.05 was significant. Results: The results showed that step-through latency in the acquisition trial (STLa) was not significantly different among groups. Step-through latency in retrieval (STLr 24) test significantly reduced and time spent in The Dark Compartment (TDC) decreased in treated groups compared with the diabetic control groups (P<0.001). Also, there was no significant difference between the STZ and saline diabetic groups. Conclusion: The findings of this study revealed that the RPH hydro-alcoholic extract and aerobic exercise could improve passive avoidance memory in streptozotocin diabetic rats. Meanwhile, they might be an adjuvant therapy combined with other traditional medicine. Highlights Diabetes mellitus is an endocrine disorders. Diabetes mellitus impaired passive avoidance memory of rats. Aerobic Training and Ripe Pistachio hulls hydroalcoholic extract alone or simultaneously ameliorated memory impairment due to diabetes mellitus. Plain Language Summary Diabetes mellitus is a serious disorder that more than 347 million people suffered from it worldwide until 2011. WHO has predicted it will increase to 366 million of people with diabetes mellitus in 2025. It has harmful effects on body function such as learning and memory. In this research we investigated the effect of ripe pistachio hulls extract and aerobic training on impaired learning and memory of diabetes mellitus rats. The ripe pistachio extract could ameliorate the memory impairment caused by diabetes mellitus. The conclusion of our study showed that a proper life style can protect our health.

* Corresponding Author: Mohammad Rostampour, PhD. Address: Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran. Tel: +98 (911) 1309782 E-mail: rostampour@gums.ac.ir; rostv@yahoo.com Introduction: Diabetes mellitus has harmful effects on body functions, such as learning and memory. According to the role of exercise and medicinal plants on body health, the purpose of this study was to survey the effect of combined aerobic training and the use of Ripe Pistachio Hulls (RPH) hydro-alcoholic extract on learning and memory in streptozotocin-induced diabetic male rats.

Psychological states affect focus of attention and play a mediating role in its effect on motor performance and learning. The present study investigated the effect of practice under psychological pressure and attention focusing with instruction on learning billiard shot. Participants were 48 female volunteer students (19-23 years old) who were randomly selected and assigned to 4 experimental groups (internal focus under high and low pressure, external focus under high and low pressure). The groups practiced for 8 sessions after the pretest. Acquisition test was performed in the last session of practice, and the retention test was conducted with 2 and 10 days of delay after the last practice session. The accuracy of the shots was scored according to the distance of the ball from the pit. The results of U Mann-Whitney test showed priority of internal attention in the acquisition and 10-day delay retention tests and priority of practice under low pressure in 10-day delay retention test (P<0.05). The results of Kruskal–Wallis test and pairwise comparisons indicated priority of the acquisition of internal attention under high pressure on external attention under high pressure and the priority of delayed retention of internal attention under low pressure on external attention under high pressure (P<0.05). It seems that given the nature of skill in terms of unchanged environmental conditions and high accuracy and attention requirements especially in the early stages of learning, practice under low psychological pressure conditions and internal focusing will result in more delayed retention for novice people

Introduction:The aim of this s tudy was to examine the effect of hippotherapy on quality of life in women with multiple sclerosis.Materials and Methods: This s tudy is a semiexperimental s tudy with pre-tes t and pos t-tes t and a control group.Among patients with multiple sclerosis, 24 patients from a clinical center in Isfahan were recruited through convenient sampling and randomly and put in the experimental and control groups.In the pre-tes t s tep, participants filled out Multiple Sclerosis Quality of Life-54 Ques tionnaire.Then, the experimental group practiced hippotherapy training for 8 weeks (3 days in a week for 30 minutes).After completing the intervention, subjects in both groups participated in the pos t-tes t.Results: A significant difference between the mean scores of the experimental and control groups in physical and mental health dimensions of quality of life was observed.Conclusion: Our data indicate that hippotherapy training has a positive effect on the quality of life of women with multiple sclerosis.

Previous research provides evidence as to the influence of teachers’ autonomy-supportive behaviors on students’ autonomous motivation in physical education (PE). However, few studies have considered the impact of teachers’ autonomy-supportive behaviors on enhancing knowledge structures and motor skills learning in PE. The present study investigated whether an autonomy-supportive intervention designed to promote motor skills learning (experimental group), compared with conventional teaching (control group), would increase autonomous motivation, knowledge structures, skill learning, and performance and whether it decrease controlled motivation in students over a semester. Twenty-eight PE students participated in this quasi-experimental study. Badminton skills were assessed in pre and post intervention and retention sessions. Motivational regulations and knowledge structures were measured in pre and post intervention. In a session after the retention, game performance was measured on the transfer test. Overall, the experimental group and the hypothesized process model were supported. The experimental group demonstrated greater mean scores in some skills in post and retention tests. Compared to students in the control group, students in the experimental group reported greater autonomous motivation and game performance in the post-test. Furthermore, knowledge structures in both groups improved. Promoting skill learning in an autonomy-supportive way, compared with conventional teaching, has important practical implications for PE programs. We conclude that the intervention was successful in enhancing students’ autonomous motivation and performance.

Objectives This experiment assessed the effectiveness of three interventions; neurofeedback, motor imagery and physical training, on their ability to improve visuomotor accuracy, measured by scores achieved on a dart throwing task. Methods Thirty-two female participants, all with no experience in dart throwing, took part and were assigned to either one of the three experimental conditions, or a control group (eight per condition). Training sessions for neurofeedback (NFB) involved participants encouraging both Theta rhythms and Sensorimotor rhythms (SMR). For Motor Imagery (MI), internal (1st person) imagery was used, where participants had to imagine throwing a dart and for physical training (PT) participants physically practised dart throwing. Measurements were recorded pre-intervention, after two weeks (6 sessions) of training (mid-intervention), after 5 weeks (15 sessions) of training (in total; Outcome Measure 1) and again two weeks after training had finished (Outcome Measure 2). Results from Mid-intervention, Outcome Measure 1 and Outcome Measure 2 were compared to baseline scores achieved pre-intervention and showed all three interventions to significantly increase performance on dart throwing compared to the Control group. Conclusion Our findings show that, as well as traditional physical practise, both motor imagery and neurofeedback can effectively improve performance on a fine visuomotor task.